\ 


University  of  California  •  Berkeley 


ICfe 


LIFE  AND  RESOURCES 


AMERICA. 


PREPARED    UNDER    THE    DIRECTION 


ARINORI    MORI 

u 


For   circulation   in   Japan. 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 
1871. 


CONTENTS. 

7S-6' 


Page 

Introduction,  -  9 

Official  and  Political  Life,  15 

Life  among  the  Farmers  and  Planters.  45 

Commercial  Life  and  Developments,  93 

Life  among  the  Mechanics,                -  125 

Religious  Life  and  Institutions,         -  147 

Life  in  the  Factories,                         -  203 

Educational  Life  and  Institutions,     -  237 

Literary,  Artistic,  and  Scientific  Life,  269 

Life  among  the  Miners,   -                  -  305 

Life  in  the  Army  and  Navy,    -         -  327 

Life  in  the  Leading  Cities,                 -  347 

Frontier  Life  and  Developments,      -  377 

Judicial  Life,                                       -  389 

Additional  Notes,    -                           -  401 


PART  FIRST. 


A  PRELIMINARY  NOTE. 


THE  knowledge  furnished  by  all  the  bet- 
ter qualified  minds  of  the  world,  is  a  pow- 
erful element,  rendering  great  service  in 
the  cause  of  humanity.  It  is  often  the 
case  that  enmity  and  bloodshed,  are  the 
consequence  of  storing  up  prejudices,  re- 
sulting from  the  want  of  mutual  knowledge 
of  the  parties  engaged.  The  object  of  this 
publication,  is  not  only  to  aid  in  removing 
those  prejudices,  but  also  to  invite  all  the 
lovers  of  their  race,  in  Japan,  to  join  in 
the  noble  march  of  progress  and  human 
happiness. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  many  dates  are 
mentioned  in  this  volume,  it  has  been  found 
necessary,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  to 
adopt  the  Western  Calendar  altogether,  and 
it  is  hoped  that  this  course  will  not  lead  to 
any  embarrassment  in  the  mind  of  the 

reader. 

ARINORI  MORI. 

Washington  City,  U.  S.,  September,  1871. 

Or,  according  to  the  Japanese  Calendar,  the 

Seventh  month  of  the  Fourth  year  of  Mcidi. 


INTRODUCTION. 


BY  the  term  America  which  appears  on 
the  title  page  of  this  book,  we  mean  the 
United  States  of  America.  As  we  are 
writing  for  the  information  of  a  class  of 
readers  who  have  never  visited  this  coun- 
try, we  propose  to  speak  in  as  simple 
and  concise  a  manner  as  possible.  What- 
ever statements  of  fact,  we  may  make, 
shall  be  founded  upon  the  public  and  other 
authentic  records ;  and  in  submitting  any 
general  observations,  wTe  shall  endeavor  to 
steer  a  middle  course,  and  give  only  such 
opinions  as  are  held  in  common  by  the 
people  of  the  country.  Before  proceeding 
to  the  main  object  of  this  volume,  however, 
we  think  it  necessary  to  take  a  brief  survey 
of  the  area  and  population  of  the  United 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

States,  as  follows.  The  total  area  of  the 
Republic,  which  extends  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  excepting 
Alaska,  lies  wholly  in  the  temperate  zone,  is 
about  three  million,  eight  hundred  and  thir- 
ty thousand  square  miles,  an  extent  of  sur- 
face larger  than  the  whole  of  Europe;  it  has 
a  coast  line,  including  shores  of  bays,  sounds 
and  lakes,  of  30,000  miles,  of  which  2,800 
are  on  the  Atlantic,  1,800  on  the  Pacific, 
and  2,000  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico;  it  is 
traversed  from  North  to  South  by  two  great 
ranges  of  mountains  called  the  Alleghany 
and  Rocky  mountains;  its  rivers  are  numer- 
ous, and  among  the  largest  in  the  world ; 
its  lakes  contain  more  than  one  half  of  the 
fresh  water  on  the  globe ;  and  its  population, 
according  to  the  census  of  1870,  is  not 
far  from  thirty-nine  millions,  which  is  a 
considerable  advance  upon  the  population 
hitherto  claimed  for  the  empire  of  Japan. 
In  the  last  70  years,  the  increase  has  been 
about  33,000,000.  Of  these  inhabitants  it 
has  been  estimated  that  more  than  two- 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

fifths  of  them  are  immigrants,  or  the 
descendants  of  immigrants  from  foreign 
countries.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  have 
contributed  most  largely  to  this  immigra- 
tion, and  the  other  countries  which  have 
helped  to  swell  the  population,  are  as  follows, 
and  we  mention  them  in  the  order  of  their 
contribution,  viz :  Germany,  France,  Prussia, 
China,  West  Indies,  Switzerland,  Norway 
and  Sweden,  Holland,  Mexico,  Spain,  Italy, 
Belgium,  South-America,  Denmark,  Azores, 
Portugal,  Sardinia,  Poland  and  Russia, 
whose  contribution  was  less  than  two  thou- 
sand. Of  this  great  mass  of  immigrants 
it  has  been  ascertained  that  a  very  large 
proportion,  have  changed  their  circumstan- 
ces for  the  better.  With  regard  to  the 
Black  race,  who,  prior  to  the  year  1860, 
were  in  a  state  of  bondage,  but  are.  now 
free,  they  number  nearly  four  millions  and 
nine  hundred  thousand ;  the  half  civilized 
Indian  tribes,  about  twenty-six  thousand, 
and  the  wild  Indians  have  been  estimated 
at  three  hundred  thousand.  In  1870  there 


1 2  INTRODUCTION. 

were  of  Chinese  63,254,  with  whom  were 
included  53  Japanese,  but  since  then  the 
latter  have  reached  about  250  in  number.* 
The  public  lands  of  the  United  States  are 
so  abundant,  that  every  man  who  settles 
in  the  country,  can  afford,  with  careful 
management,  to  have  a  small  farm  for 
his  exclusive  benefit,  as  the  price  of  land 
is  generally  so  reasonable  that  it  scarce- 
ly exceeds,  and  seldom  equals,  the  rent 
payable  in  England.  There  is  no  descrip- 
tion of  produce,  European  or  Tropical, 
which  may  not  be  raised  in  the  United 
States,  and  aside  from  its  many  other 
advantages,  there  is  no  other  country 
which  offers  so  many  inducements  to  peo- 
ple in  search  of  permanent  and  comfortable 
homes;  and  it  is  the  present  condition, 
of  the  people  who  enjoy  this  inheritance, 
with  their  manners  and  customs,  that  we 
propose  to  describe,  in  the  following  pages 
of  this  volume. 


*  It  must  not  be  understood   that  all   these  foreigners 
have  been  naturalized. 


INTRODUCTION".  13 

But,  before  concluding  this  introduction, 
it  is  important  that  two  subjects  should  be 
mentioned  for  the  special  consideration  of 
the  Japanese  people.  While  we  entertain 
an  exalted  opinion  of  what  is  called  a  Re- 
publican form  of  Government,  we  confess 
that  it  is  not  without  its  disadvantages  and 
dangers.  For  any  foreign  nation  fully  to 
understand  them,  must  require  time,  and 
much  careful  study.  The  Japanese  people 
have  been  somewhat  fascinated  by  what 
they  have  seen  of  the  American  government 
and  institutions,  and  it  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance, that  they  should  well  consider 
the  subject  in  all  its  bearings,  before  adopt- 
ing any  of  its  features  into  their  own  form 
of  government.  The  evils  resulting  from 
the  misuse  of  freedom  in  America,  are 
among  the  most  difficult  to  correct  or  re- 
form, and  ought  to  be  carefully  avoided. 
Another  fact  that  should  not  be  forgotten 
has  reference  to  the  educational  qualifica- 
tions necessary  to  secure  success  in  a  Re- 
publican form  of  Government.  It  is  un- 


}4  INTRODUCTION. 

doubtedly  true  that  the  best  thinkers  in 
America  deplore  the  fact  that  the  machina- 
tions of  the   politicians,   have  resulted  in 
placing  the  United  States  in  an  unfortunate 
condition  in  this  respect.     It  has  been  so 
profitable  with  designing  and  selfish  men, 
to  increase  the  number  of  voters,  that  they 
have  secured  the  passage   of  laws  which 
allow  all  men  to  vote  in  view  of  the  single 
idea  of  personal  freedom.    This  is  undoubt- 
edly all  wrong,  and  the  evil  effects  of  this 
state  of  things  are  being  manifested  every 
day.     A  prosperous,  happy,  and  permanent 
Republican  government  can  only  be  secured, 
when  the  people  who  live  under  it  are  vir- 
tuous and  well  educated. 


OFFICIAL  AND  POLITICAL  LIFE. 


As  preliminary  to  this  chapter,  it  would 
seem  to  be  necessary  that  we  should  give 
an  outline  of  the  machinery  of  the  Ameri- 
can Government.  It  is  two-fold  in  its  char- 
acter; first  Federal,  because  it  is  made  up 
of  States,  and  second  National,  because  it 
acts  directly  from  the  people.  According 
to  the  Constitution,  it  is  divided  into  three 
branches,  viz :  Executive,  Legislative,  and 
Judicial.  The  head  of  the  Executive 
branch,  or  ruler  of  the  Nation,  is  called 
the  President,  who  is  elected  by  the  votes 
of  the  people  for  the  term  of  four  years, 
and  is  sometimes  re-elected  for  an  additional 
term  of  four  years.  He  is  also  the  Com- 
mander-in-Chief  of  the  United  States  Navy 
and  Army.  The  average  cost  of  each  elec- 


16  OFFICIAL    AND    POLITICAL    LIFE. 

tion  in  money,  has  been  estimated  at  two 
millions  of  dollars.  His  office  is  styled  the 
Executive  Mansion,  and  is  identical  with  his 
official  residence,  the  White  House.  He  is 
obliged  to  be  a  native  and  citizen  of  the 
country,  and  thirty-five  years  of  age,  and 
his  annual  compensation  is  twenty-five  thou- 
sand dollars.  The  second  officer  of  the 
Government  is  called  the  Vice  President, 
whose  business  is  to  preside  over  the  Sen- 
ate. He  is  elected  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  President,  and  his  salary  is  eight  thou- 
sand dollars  per  annum.  The  Executive 
Departments  of  the  Government  are  seven 
in  number,  viz  :  the  Departments  of  State 
or  Foreign  Affairs,  Treasury,  Interior,  Post 
Office,  War,  Navy,  and  of  Justice.  The 
heads  of  them  are  called  Secretaries,  and 
they  form  the  Cabinet  of  the  President. 
They  each  receive  a  salary  of  eight  thou- 
sand dollars,  and  their  jurisdiction,  under 
the  President,  extends  to  all  the  subordinate 
officers  of  the  Government,  whether  located 
in  Washington  or  in  the  several  States  of 


OFFICIAL    AXD    POLITICAL    LIFE.  17 

the  Union.  The  Judiciary  of  the  country 
is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court,  District 
Courts,  and  the  Court  of  Claims ;  the  sala- 
ries of  the  Judges  ranging  from  sixty-five 
hundred  down  to  thirty-five  hundred  dol- 
lars per  annum.  The  Legislative  branch 
of  the  Government,  consists  of  a  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives, — the  Sena- 
tors, numbering  seventy-four,  elected  for 
six  years, — and  the  Representatives,  two 
hundred  and  forty-three, — elected  for  two 
years,  and  their  compensation  is  five  thou- 
sand dollars  per  annum.  The  number  of 
States  which  form  the  Union  is  thirty-seven, 
with  ten  Territories  or  incipient  States,  and 
their  form  of  government  is  precisely  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  nation  at  large ;  the  lead- 
ing officers  of  each  State  or  Territory  bear- 
ing the  titles  of  Governor  and  Lieutenant 
Governor.  To  the  above  may  be  added  the 
municipal  form  of  government  for  cities  and 
towns,  where  the  local  authority  is  allied  to 
that  generally  recognized  in  Europe,  where 
the  chief  officers  consist  of  Mayors  and  Al- 


18  OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL   LIFE. 

dermen  and  their  subordinates,  although 
bearing  different  names,  in  different  coun- 
tries. With  these  particulars  before  him, 
the  reader  will  be  able  to  comprehend  the 
following  observations.  Although  the  real 
and  official  residence  of  the  President  is 
in  Washington,  the  fashionable  season,  so- 
called,  begins  and  ends  with  the  sittings  of 
Congress,  beginning  in  December  and  last- 
ing from  three  to  six  months.  The  position 
occupied  by  officials  under  the  Constitution, 
gives  them  necessarily  a  certain  rank,  ac- 
cording to  the  importance  and  nature  of  the 
office,  the  length  of  time,  and  the  age,  re- 
quired by  law,  of  the  incumbent.  The 
house  in  which  the  President  resides  is  the 
property  of  the  Government;  and  to  a  great 
extent,  his  household  expenses  are  paid  by 
public  appropriations.  The  title  by  which 
he  is  addressed  in  conversation  is  that  of 
Mr.  President,  and  every  citizen  of  the  Re- 
public, no  matter  how  humble  his  position, 
has  a  right  to  visit  the  Executive  in  per- 
son. During  the  winter  he  holds  public 


OFFICIAL    AND    POLITICAL,   LIFE.  19 

receptions  as  often  as  once  a  week,  and  on 
the  Fourth  of  July,  which  is  a  National 
Holiday,  and  the  First  of  January,  he  re- 
ceives, as  a  special  mark  of  respect,  the  Di- 
plomatic Corps  and  the  officers  of  the  Army 
and  Navy  in  full  uniform,  himself  always 
appearing  without  any  uniform.  He  ac- 
cepts no  invitations  to  dinners,  and  makes 
no  calls  or  visits  of  ceremony ;  but  is  at 
liberty  to  visit  without  ceremony  at  his 
pleasure.  State  dinners  are  given  by  him 
quite  frequently,  and  persons  invited  com- 
mit a  breach  of  etiquette  when  they  decline 
invitations.  The  rules  of  social  intercourse 
which  govern  the  Cabinet  Ministers,  are 
similar  to  those  recognized  by  the  President. 
As  their  tenure  of  office  is  limited,  they 
have,  in  spite  of  themselves,  a  very  busy 
time  during  their  whole  term  of  service : 
spending  their  days  in  dealing  out  patron- 
age, and  their  nights  in  giving  or  attending 
parties.  Their  families  take  the  lead  in 
fashion,  and  all  American  citizens  have  an 
undisputed  right  to  attend  their  receptions, 


20  OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL    LIFE. 

and  after  that  public  manner,  to  be  fashion- 
able ;  and  as  exclusiveness  in  the  President 
or  his  ministers  would  be  considered  un- 
democratic, and  therefore  would  not  be  tol- 
erated, there  is  no  end  to  the  so-called  en- 
joyments of  life.  If  a  minister  is  rich  and 
liberal,  he  becomes,  for  the  time  being,  the 
biggest  man  of  the  hour,  in  spite  of  his 
politics ;  if  poor,  and  dependent  only  upon 
his  salary,  the  fact  of  his  having  to  occupy 
a  hirge  house,  and  to  entertain  the  people, 
invariably  sends  him  into  retirement  a  poor- 
er man  than  he  was  before.  With  the 
Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  these  matters 
are  somewhat  different.  They  are  the  only 
dignitaries  who  hold  office  for  life,  and  they 
can  afford  to  do  as  they  please,  and  gener- 
ally please  to  lead  the  quiet  lives  of  culti- 
vated gentlemen.  They  go  into  society 
when  the  spirit  moves  them,  are  not  disin- 
clined to  partake  of  good  dinners  with  their 
friends,  a  Foreign  Envoy,  or  a  Cabinet  Min- 
ister, and  perhaps  the  greatest  of  their 
blessings  is,  that  they  are  not  compelled  to 


OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL   LIFE.  21 

curry  favor  with  the  multitude.  The  next 
layer  of  Washington  society,  to  which  we 
would  allude,  is  made  up  of  the  Heads  of 
Bureaus  and  the  Officers  of  the  Army  and 
Navy,  their  pay  ranging  from  ten  to  two 
thousand  dollars  per  annum.  They  are  the 
men  who  more  immediately  manage  the 
machinery  of  the  Government,,  and  upon 
whom  to  a  great  extent  depends  the  success 
of  all  the  public  measures  enacted  by  Con- 
gress. Though  generally  well  paid,  many 
of  them  cannot  afford  to  display  much  style 
although  they  live  comfortably,  and  gener- 
ally, in  their  own  houses,  although  many 
officials  reside  in  boarding  houses  or  hotels. 
The  civil  officers  are  but  seldom  appointed 
on  their  merits,  but  usually  through  politi- 
cal influence,  and  the  party  which  happens 
to  be  in  power,  commonly  claims  all  the 
patronage,  and  the  most  worthy  and  com- 
petent men,  are  often  dismissed  from  office 
without  a  moment's  warning.  With  the 
Military  and  Naval  officers  the  case  is  some- 
what different,  for  though  they  may  get 


22  OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL    LIFE. 

into  office  through  political  influence,  they 
are  usually  appointed  for  life,  and  are  not 
removed  without  cause.  After  the  above 
come  the  Clerks  or  employees  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, which  number  several  thousand  in 
Washington  alone.  They  are  in  reality  the 
hardest  working  population  of  the  Metrop- 
olis. Among  them  may  be  found  men  from 
every  State  in  the  Union,  and  from  many 
foreign  countries ;  men  of  no  particular 
mark,  who  have  lost  fortunes  ;  ripe  scholars, 
who  have  been  rudely  bulfetted  by  the 
world ;  men  of  capacity,  who  can  teach 
their  superiors  in  office ;  rare  penmen  and 
common-place  accountants ;  and  a  sister- 
hood, composed  chiefly  of  respectable  wid- 
ows and  orphans  who  have  fled  to  the  Gov- 
ernment for  support.  The  custom  of  em- 
ploying women  as  clerks  originated  out  of 
the  disasters  which  followed  the  late  war, 
and  the  number  now  employed  by  the  Gov- 
ernment has  already  reached  several  thou- 
sand, and  they  have  been  found  to  be  quite 
as  useful  as  men  clerks.  Their  compensa- 


OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL   LIFE.  23 

tion  ranges  from  nine  hundred  to  twenty- 
five  hundred  dollars  per  annum,  and  while 
it  is  true  that  many  receive  more  than  they 
earn,  because  of  their  idle  or  inattentive 
habits,  others  find  it  difficult  to  secure  a 
comfortable  support.  Occasionally,  a  man 
may  be  found  who  has  grown  gray  in  the 
public  service  and  is  an  oracle,  but  the  great 
majority  are,  in  reality,  a  floating  popula- 
tion. The  comparative  ease  with  which 
these  Clerks  earn  their  money,  tends  to 
make  them  improvident;  many  instances 
might  be  mentioned,  however,  where  Clerks 
have  left  the  Government  service,  and  be- 
come distinguished  as  merchants  or  in  some 
of  the  professions.  For  a  totally  different 
phase  of  Washington  life,  and  the  most  in- 
fluential for  evil  or  for  good,  we  must  turn 
to  the  brotherhood  of  Congressmen.  Com- 
ing as  they  do  from  all  parts  of  the  country, 
and  representing  every  variety  of  popula- 
tion, it  is  quite  as  impossible  to  speak  of 
them  collectively,  as  of  their  individual 
characteristics.  Among  them  are  to  be 


24  OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL   LIFE. 

found  honest  and  able  statesmen,  but  that 
a  large  proportion  of  them  are  mere  time- 
serving politicians,  is  a  fact  that  cannot  be 
questioned.  It  is  frequently  the  case  that 
after  a  Congressman  has  ended  his  career 
as  a  legislator,  he  turns  office-seeker,  and 
many  of  them,  without  a  knowledge  of  any 
language  but  their  own  are  sent  abroad  as 
Diplomatic  Ministers.  Of  these  Congress- 
men, there  have  been  not  less  than  five 
thousand  of  them  elected  since  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Government;  and  the  several 
political  parties  to  which  they  have  be- 
longed may  be  summed  up  as  Federalists, 
Democrats,  Whigs,  Locofocos,  Freesoilers, 
Abolitionists,  Fire-eaters,  Republicans,  Cop- 
perheads, Native  Americans,  Secessionists 
and  Radicals,  forming  in  the  aggregate  a 
conglomeration  of  political  ideas  quite  in 
keeping  with  the  energetic  and  free  spirit 
of  the  American  people.  Prior  to  the  late 
civil  war,  colored  men  were  not  admitted 
to  seats  in  Congress,  but  at  the  present 
time  a  few  of  them  hold  positions  in  both 


OFFICIAL    AND    POLITICAL    LIFE.  25 

Houses  of  Congress, — there  being  now  no 
distinction  recognized  on  account  of  color, 
so  far  as  political  rights  are  concerned. 
With  regard  to  the  permanent  population 
of  Washington  little  can  be  said  of  special 
interest.  Occupying,  as  this  city  does,  a 
position  on  the  River  Potomac,  at  the  head 
of  navigation,  about  midway  between  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains, it  was  calculated  to  become  a  place 
of  commercial  importance.  But  this  idea 
was  not  realized,  and  it  became  a  metropol- 
itan city,  chiefly  dependent  for  its  support 
upon  the  General  Government.  The  local 
trade  is  measured  by  the  wants  of  the  pop- 
ulation, and  there  is  nothing  exported  ex- 
cepting a  limited  amount  of  flour,  and  a 
considerable  quantity  of  bituminous  coal. 
The  only  particular,  perhaps,  in  which  the 
inhabitants  differ  from  those  of  other  Amer- 
ican cities,  is  in  their  free  and  easy  manners, 
growing  out  of  their  intercourse  and  famil- 
iarity with  people  from  all  quarters  of  the 
globe,  drawn  hither  by  business  or  pleasure. 


26  OFFICIAL    AND    POLITICAL    LIFE. 

With  them,  the  dignitaries  of  the  land,  as 
well  as  ambassadors  from  abroad,  are  ap- 
preciated at  their  real  value ;  and  a  man, 
who  towers  as  a  giant  in  the  rural  districts, 
is  very  sure  to  be  measured  accurately  in 
the  Metropolis.  But  the  most  peculiar  fea- 
ture of  Washington  society  at  the  present 
time  (1871)  is,  the  position  to  which  the 
colored  or  Negro  population  has  attained. 
Before  the  late  civil  war,  these  unhappy 
people  were  in  a  state  of  bondage,  and  only 
enough  of  them  were  congregated  in  the 
Metropolis  to  supply  the  demand  for  house- 
hold servants.  While  the  war  was  pro- 
gressing, which  resulted  in  their  emancipa- 
tion, large  numbers  fled  to  this  city,  as  to 
a  place  of  refuge,  and  here,  a  large  propor- 
tion of  them  have  continued  to  remain  to 
the  present  time.  They  have  been  admit- 
ted to  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  citi- 
zenship; but,  while  the  more  intelligent 
have  profited  by  their  advantages,  large 
numbers  of  them  are  content  to  idle  away 
their  time,  or  depend  upon  the  authorities 


OFFICIAL    AND    POLITICAL   LIFE.  27 

for  support,  and  they  constitute  about  one- 
third  of  the  present  population.  They  have 
not  as  yet  been  sufficiently  educated  to  be 
received  in  society  on  the  same  footing  with 
the  white  race,  and  the  repugnance  to  re- 
ceiving them  at  the  same  table,  or  to  inter- 
marrying with  them,  is  as  strong  as  in  other 
times,  quite  universal,  and  will  probably  so 
continue. 

In  the  further  prosecution  of  our  plan, 
we  must  direct  attention  to  that  large  mass 
of  the  community  engaged  in  carrying  on 
the  business  of  the  nation  in  the  diverse 
regions  of  the  United  States.  We  begin 
with  the  Postmasters,  one  of  whom  is  loca- 
ted in  every  city,  town  and  village  through- 
out the  land,  and  the  aggregate  number  of 
whom  is  about  twenty-six  thousand,  exclu- 
sive of  their  numerous  assistants.  Their 
duties  are,  to  receive  and  deliver  all  letters 
sent  to  their  several  Offices,  and  to  look  af- 
ter the  prompt  dispatch  of  the  mails,  by 
ships  and  railroads,  by  coaches  and  wagons, 
and  on  horseback,  and  their  compensation 


28  OFFICIAL    AND    POLITICAL    LIFE. 

ranges  from  six  thousand  dollars  to  a  few 
dollars  per  annum.  They  are  all  appointed 
directly  by  the  President,  and  hold  office 
during  his  pleasure.  Next  to  these  come 
the  custom-house  officers,  who,  including 
all  grades,  number  not  less  than  five  thou- 
sand employees  ;  after  these,  comes  another 
large  body  whose  business  is  to  collect  the 
Internal  Revenue  of  the  country  ;  and  also 
a  very  extensive  force  engaged  in  carrying 
on  the  interests  connected  with  the  Public 
Lands,  the  Indian  Tribes,  and  the  Judicial 
business  in  the  various  States  and  Territo- 
ries, as  well  as  those  interests  prosecuted 
under  the  authority  of  the  Patent  Office, 
the  Pension  Office  and  the  Agricultural 
Department.  Now,  as  the  people  here  men- 
tioned, numbering  in  the  gross  not  far  from 
sixty  thousand  persons,  obtain  their  posi- 
tions through  political  influence,  it  is  natural 
that  they  should  take  a  special  interest  in 
politics,  and  do  their  utmost  for  the  success 
of  the  particular  party  to  which  they  belong. 
Hence  the  great  excitement  which  invaria- 


OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL    LIFE.  29 

bly  prevails  at  all  the  elections.  As  before 
intimated  the  President  and  Vice  President 
are  voted  for  once  in  every  four  years  ;  and 
the  Representatives  in  Congress  once  in 
two  years ; — the  Senators  being  chosen  by 
the  State  Legislatures.  It  would  appear 
therefore  that  as  the  people  are  intelligent 
and  honest,  so  must  be  the  office-holders ; 
but  this  is  not  always  the  case,  because  of 
the  existence  of  what  are  called  mere  poli- 
ticians or  demagogues.  This  class  of  citi- 
zens has  greatly  multiplied  of  late  years, 
and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  nearly  all  the 
troubles  wrhich  befall  the  country  are  the 
result  of  their  petty  schemes  and  selfish 
intrigues.  There  is  not  a  village  in  the 
land  where  they  do  not  congregate  or  pur- 
sue in  secret  their  unpatriotic  designs.  Of 
course  there  are  many  exceptions  to  this 
state  of  things,  but  the  rule  is  as  we  have 
stated  it :  and  the  evils  resulting  from  the 
power  thus  obtained  and  prostituted,  have 
come  to  be  universally  recognized  and  de- 
plored by  the  honest  people  of  the  land. 


30  OFFICIAL    ASD    POLITICAL    LIFE. 

The  loss  of  dignity,  and  the  decline  in  pub- 
lic morals  on  account  of  politics  is,  to-day, 
a  source  of  mortification  and  alarm  among 
the  virtuous  and  patriotic  citizens  of  the 
country.  The  philosophy  of  Government, 
is  a  subject  to  which  the  people  of  America 
have  devoted  but  little  attention,  and  very 
few  books  have  been  published  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  yet  it  is  claimed  that  they  are  in 
advance  of  all  other  nations,  in  the  practice 
of  self-government.  To  what  extent  this  is 
true,  the  present  writer  is  not  called  upon 
to  decide.  It  is  too  true,  however,  that 
the  opinion  is  frequently  expressed  by  for- 
eigners that  the  unbridled  system  of  a  Re- 
publican government  leads  to  many  political 
troubles.  The  two  or  three  crowning  fea- 
tures of  the  American  Government  would 
seem  to  be  as  follows  :  That  the  nation  is  a 
peculiar  organism,  having  a  life  and  destiny 
of  its  own,  founded  on  the  idea  of  humanity, 
and  like  the  individual  person,  but  in  a 
more  continuous  degree ;  that  its  authority 
to  govern  the  people,  is  derived  from  their 


OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL   LIFE.  31 

actual  or  implied  assent;  and  that  in  assert- 
ing its  prerogatives,  it  looks  to  the  least 
possible  interference  with  the  free  action 
of  the  individuals  composing  the  community. 
This  form  of  government  involves  the  idea 
of  contract,  tacit  or  expressed,  and  no  mat- 
ter how  it  may  be  carried  out,  must  rest 
upon  the  understanding  of  the  people,  not 
only  as  to  the  end  to  be  pursued,  but  also 
as  to  the  methods.  As  one  circle  within 
another,  so  does  the  government  of  each 
State  and  Territory  revolve  within  the  cir- 
cle of  the  Union,  and  the  State,  county  and 
town  elections,  for  offices  which  are  subject 
to  State  patronage,  are  precisely  similar  in 
character  and  results  to  the  National  elec- 
tions. While  deprecating  the  abuses  to 
which  the  American  people  are  subject,  on 
account  of  what  is  called  universal  suffrage, 
there  are  many  social  features  which  are  to 
be  highly  commended,  and  are  peculiar  to 
the  country ;  among  these  is  the  absence  of 
pauperism,  and  the  universal  respectability 
in  personal  appearance  among  all  classes. 


32  OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL   LIFE. 

This  fact  is  apparent  to  all  observers,  and 
has  been  fully  conceded  by  the  best  Eng- 
lish writers  on  this  country.  There  is  no 
beggary  here  except  such  as  arises  from 
profligacy  or  causes  beyond  the  control  of 
human  nature.  Another  peculiar  feature 
of  American  life  is,  the  equal  distribution 
of  wealth,  acknowledged  as  remarkably 
characteristic  of  the  nation.  In  all  the 
large  cities  and  occasionally  in  the  country, 
may  be  found  a  man  possessing  enormous 
wealth,  but  among  the  millions  of  our  pop- 
ulation wealth  is  diffused,  and  there  is  a 
wonderful  equality  in  the  material  condition 
of  the  population.  Another  phase  of  Amer- 
ican life,  to  which  wTe  have  already  alluded, 
and  which  has  astonished  the  Governments 
of  the  Old  World,  is,  the  doctrine  of  Univer- 
sal Suffrage.  It  is  this  which  lies  at  the 
basis  of  all  her  institutions,  and  it  is  this, 
more  than  anything  else,  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  the  super-abundant  resources  of 
the  country,  that  tends  to  an  equal  distri- 
bution of  wealth.  It  is  not,  as  a  noted 


OFFICIAL    AND    POLITICAL   LIFE.  33 

English  Statesman  has  said,  so  much  a 
man's  wealth,  which  the  American  people 
recognize,  and  to  which  they  pay  homage, 
as  the  energy  and  ability  which  may  turn 
wealth  to  account.  In  theory,  as  well  as 
in  reality,  they  regard  equality  and  broth- 
erhood as  of  the  Essence  of  the  Constitution 
under  which  they  live,  and  of  their  social 
well-being  and  existence.  As  the  official 
and  political  classes  heretofore  touched 
upon  are  either  the  law-makers  of  the  land, 
or  engaged  in  carrying  out  the  laws,  it  may 
be  well  enough  to  notice  their  rights  and 
privileges  under  those  laws.  While  it  is 
true  that  members  of  Congress,  and  some 
few  dignitaries  besides,  are  exempt  from 
arrest  for  civil  misdemeanors,  when  engaged 
in  their  public  duties,  all  persons  of  every 
position  are  amenable  to  the  criminal  laws. 
A  leading  dignitary,  when  he  violates  the 
law,  is  as  promptly  brought  to  trial,  as  the 
humblest  man  in  the  community,  but  the 
misfortune  is,  that  the  influence  possessed 
by  the  former  is  too  apt  to  keep  him  from 


34  OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL   LIFE. 

deserved  punishment,  while  the  latter  is 
compelled  to  meet  a  less  happy  fate.  The 
titles  which  accompany  the  possession  of 
office,  are  of  no  special  value,  and,  except 
in  the  Army  and  Navy,  terminate  with  the 
office.  At  the  same  time  it  must  not  be 
supposed  that  the  Americans  are  without 
the  sentiments  which  grow  out  of  associa- 
tion with  old  and  honored  families.  In 
some  parts  of  the  country  there  is  a  very 
decided  feeling  of  aristocracy,  but  it  is  pecu- 
liar to  the  regions  which  have  been  the 
longest  settled.  The  privilege  of  receiving 
and  sending  letters  free  of  postage,  and 
without  limit,  is  enjoyed  only  by  the  Pres- 
ident, his  Cabinet,  the  heads  of  Bureaus 
and  Congressmen  ;  under  certain  official  re- 
strictions, the  postmasters  may  frank  their 
letters,  but  beyond  that,  all  men  in  office 
have  to  pay  postage  like  ordinary  people. 
When  a  young  man  has  determined  to  lead 
a  political  life,  his  first  desire  is,  to  be  elec- 
ted to  the  State  Legislature,  then  to  become 
Governor  of  the  State,  and  from  that  posi- 


OFFICIAL,    AND    POLITICAL   LIFE.  35 

tion  he  thinks  himself  entitled  to  go  into 
the  United  States  Senate,  but  there  is  no 
uniformity  in  these  promotions.  Generally 
speaking,  the  career  of  public  men  in  this 
country,  is  measured  more  by  their  cunning 
or  success  in  managing  the  people  who  have 
votes,  rather  than  by  their  abilities.  Nor 
does  their  political  success  depend  upon 
their  antecedents — upon  wealth  or  family 
position.  Ten  years  before  he  became 
President,  Ulysses  S.  Grant  was  a  leather 
merchant;  it  was  the  boast  of  Andrew 
Johnson,  the  late  President,  that  he  had 
been  bred  a  tailor;  and  of  Abraham  Lin- 
coln, that  he  had  earned  his  living  in  early 
life  as  a  common  chopper  of  wood,  or  rail- 
splitter.  The  present  Minister  to  England 
was  once  a  tutor  in  an  academy ;  and  the 
Ministers  to  France  and  Spain  were  both 
printers  ;  but  at  the  same  time  it  does  occa- 
sionally happen  in  these  latter  days,  as  it  fre- 
quently did  in  former  times,  that  the  diplo- 
matic representatives  abroad  have  attained 
high  positions  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 


36  OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL   LIFE. 

they  have  been  men  of  culture  and  quiet 
scholarship,  as  in  the  case  of  Motley  and 
Bancroft  the  historians,  and  Marsh  the  dis- 
tinguished scholar  and  author.  The  pres- 
ent Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  was,  for 
many  years,  a  merchant's  clerk  ;  and  among 
the  Senators  and  Representatives,  are  men 
who  once  sold  dry  goods  for  a  living,  or 
were  engaged  in  various  mechanical  employ- 
ments, but  who  are  not  on  those  accounts, 
less  esteemed  than  they  would  otherwise 
have  been.  But  when  a  notorious  gambler 
or  profligate  is  elected  to  Congress,  as  has 
sometimes  been  the  case,  it  must  not  be 
supposed  that  the  American  people  are  in- 
different to  his  antecedents.  The  most 
striking  fact,  perhaps,  which  can  be  men- 
tioned by  way  of  illustrating  the  wonderful 
elasticity  of  the  American  Government  is 
this,  that  among  the  Representatives  now 
sitting  in  Congress  and  engaged  in  mould- 
ing the  laws,  are  several  persons,  members 
of  the  Negro  race,  who  were  once  slaves, 
employed  upon  plantations,  both  of  which 


OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL    LIFE.  37 

could  alike,  at  one  time,  have  been  sold  for 
a  specific  sum  of  money.  Although  there 
are  many  instances  among  the  State  Gov- 
ernors, where  men  have  risen  to  eminence 
from  obscurity,  the  people  have  generally 
been  more  careful  in  selecting  their  State 
executives,  than  in  selecting  their  Congress- 
men ;  and  what  we  have  said  in  regard  to 
the  changes  effected  by  politics  in  the  case 
of  prominent  officials,  is  equally  true,  in  a 
less  degree,  of  all  the  subordinate  office- 
holders. And  now  the  question  arises,  how 
about  the  servants  of  the  public  after  they 
have  been  superseded  in  their  official  posi- 
tion ?  It  cannot  be  said  that  any  of  the 
Presidents  have  ever  gone  into  any  unbe- 
coming employment  after  leaving  the  Exec- 
utive Chair;  but  it  is  not  uncommon  for 
Ex-Congressmen  and  other  ex-officials  of 
the  so-called  higher  grades,  to  go  into  all 
sorts  of  inappropriate  employments,  from  a 
Government  Clerkship  to  a  Claim  agency. 
The  only  one  of  the  Presidents  who  con- 
sented to  enter  Congress  after  leaving  the 


38  OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL   LIFE. 

Executive  Chair  was  John  Quincy  Adams, 
but  his  character  stood  so  high  as  a  man  and 
a  statesman,  he  could  afford  to  do  as  he 
pleased,  and  to  die,  as  he  did,  in  the  har- 
ness of  public  life.  As  before  stated,  the 
total  number  of  men,  who  have  served  the 
country  as  law-makers,  is  about  five  thou- 
sand ;  of  these,  the  legal  profession  has 
sent  the  largest  proportion ;  the  men  of  let- 
ters have  numbered  only  one  in  every  fifty : 
the  eloquent  speakers  or  orators  of  special 
note,  have  not  been  more  than  two  hundred; 
less  than  one-half  graduated  at-  learned  in- 
stitutions: while  the  balance  have  been 
farmers  and  planters,  merchants,  and  mem- 
bers of  various  professions.  The  total  num- 
ber of  men  who  have  held  Cabinet  appoint- 
ments is  one  hundred  and  eighty-two,  of 
whom  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  have 
been  Congressmen :  of  the  forty-four  Su- 
preme Court  Judges,  one  half  of  them  served 
in  the  Senate  or  House  of  Representatives  : 
out  of  five  hundred  and  twenty-seven  for- 
eign Ministers,  one  hundred  and  seventy 


OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL   LIFE.  39 

were  members  of  Congress;  and  of  the 
seven  hundred  and  sixty-eight  State  and 
Territorial  Governors,  three  hundred  and 
forty-nine  were  Congressmen.  The  Treaty 
which  has  recently  been  made  between  the 
American  and  English  Governments,  con- 
summates a  long-wished  for  condition  of 
affairs,  viz :  a  cordial  good-will  with  all  the 
great  Powers  of  Europe — Great  Britain, 
France,  Germany,  Italy,  Russia  and  Spain. 
It  is  claimed,  indeed,  by  the  best  thinkers, 
that  the  American  Government  was  never 
more  powerful  and  influential  for  good  than 
it  is  at  the  present  time.  Intercourse  and 
trade  between  the  two  continents,  over 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  are  growing  rapidly. 
The  friendship  of  Japan  for  the  United 
States,  and  its  thorough  reciprocation  on 
their  part,  are  universally  acknowledged. 
The  latter  seem  to  watch  attentively  the 
movements  of  England  and  other  European 
Powers  in  the  far  East.  And  while  the 
British  Government  may  deem  it  wise  to 
use  force  in  its  dealings  with  the  Eastern 


40  OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL   LIFE. 

nations,  the  American  policy  appears  to 
adhere  resolutely  to  the  principles  of  peace, 
justice,  and  equal  rights  to  all,  notwith- 
standing the  late  unwarrantable  operations 
of  the  American  Navy  on  the  coast  of  Corea. 
The  changes  for  good  that  have  taken  place 
in  Japan  during  the  last  few  years,  are  a 
matter  of  wonder  and  satisfaction  to  the 
whole  civilized  world.  The  American  peo- 
ple have  been,  since  the  memorable  visit 
of  Commodore  Perry,  taking  great  and  spe- 
cial interest  in  the  affairs  of  Japan.  The 
President  of  the  United  States  has  justly 
echoed  the  prevailing  sentiment  among  the 
Americans,  when  he  said  to  the  Prince 
Fushimi,  member  of  one  of  the  Imperial 
families  of  the  Micado,  that  he  had  seen 
with  pride,  the  young  men  of  Japan  com- 
ing over  to  receive  their  education,  and 
that  he  would  take  the  greatest  pleasure  in 
contriving  to  make  their  residence  in  this 
country,  both  agreeable  and  useful  to  them. 
There  rests  upon  Japan  a  great  hope,  as 
well  as  high  responsibility,  for  the  success 


OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL    LIFE.  41 

of  bringing  about  a  healthy  and  exemplary 
civilization,  which  must  take  the  lead  among 
all  the  Asiatic  nations. 

P.  S.  In  view  of  the  changes  which  are 
constantly  taking  place  among  the  officials 
of  the  American  Government,  to  which  al- 
lusion has  been  made  in  the  foregoing  pages, 
the  writer  must  express  an  opinion.  They 
are,  beyond  all  question,  a  great  disadvan- 
tage to  the  Republic.  They  naturally  in- 
terfere with  the  proper  and  regular  working 
of  the  machinery  of  the  Government,  and 
are  the  primary  cause  of  the  bitter  political 
dissensions,  which  have  long  prevailed,  and 
continue  to  prevail,  among  the  American 
people.  And  what  is  more,  they  lead  to  all 
kinds  of  corruption ;  and  at  the  very  time 
of  our  writing  these  lines,  the  people  of 
New  York  are  greatly  convulsed  over  the 
discovery  that  the  Treasury  of  the  City  and 
State  has  been  robbed  to  the  extent  of 
many  millions  of  dollars,  growing  directly 
out  of  the  evils  of  office  seeking,  and  rota- 


42  OFFICIAL    AND   POLITICAL   LIFE. 

tion  in  office  from  party  considerations. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  confessed 
that  where  the  people  have  it  in  their  power, 
as  in  America,  to  regulate  the  conduct  of 
the  men  they  elect  to  office,  so  long  as  they 
are  truly  honest,  they  can  always  prevent 
a  long  continuance  of  the  evils  brought 
upon  them  by  unscrupulous  demagogues. 
Hence  the  great  importance  of  their  being 
both  virtuous  and  truly  patriotic. 


PART    SECOND. 


LIFE  AMONG  THE  FARMERS  AND 
PLANTERS. 


IN  the  present  paper,  we  propose  to  give 
a  comprehensive  account  of  the  Agricultural 
population  of  the  United  States,  and  shall 
speak  of  Farm  Life  in  New  England,  (the 
Eastern,)  the  Middle,  and  Western  States ; 
and  of  Plantation  Life  in  the  Southern 
States.  It  is  now  generally  acknowledged 
that  the  prosperity  of  America  depends 
chiefly  upon  its  Agriculture,  and  that  it  has 
come  to  be  considered  the  granary  of  Eu- 
rope. The  area  of  land  susceptible  of  cul- 
tivation has  been  estimated  to  be  about 
two  thousand,  two  hundred  and  fifty  mil- 
lions (2,250,000,000)  of  acres,  more  than 
half  of  which  is  owned  by  the  Government, 


46         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

five  hundred  millions  (500,000,000)  having 
been  surveyed  and  is  now  ready  for  occu- 
pation ;  while  the  lands  under  cultivation 
amount  to  more  than  two  hundred  millions 
(200,000,000)  of  acres.  It  has  also  been 
estimated  that  seven-eighths  of  the  entire 
population  of  the  country  are  engaged  in 
agricultural  pursuits,  or  in  the  various  pro- 
fessions and  trades  naturally  dependent 
thereupon.  The  largest  wheat  crop  ever 
produced  in  the  States,  was  in  1869  when 
the  yield  amounted  to  two  hundred  and 
sixty-four  millions  (264,000,000)  of  bush- 
els, and  as  the  average  price  was  one  dollar 
and  forty  cents  ($1.40)  the  total  cash  value 
was  not  less  than  $369,600,000.  The 
quantity  of  corn  was  1,100,000,000  bush- 
els; Rye  22,000,000  ;  Barley  28,000,000  ; 
Buckwheat  17,000,000  ;  Oats  275,000,000, 
and  Potatoes  111,000,001);  Hay  22,000,- 
000  tons ;  Tobacco  310,000,000  pounds  ; 
Cane  Sugar  120,000,000  pounds  and  Cot- 
ton 1,767,000,000  pounds,  valued  at  $147,- 
380,000.  And  as  to  domestic  animals,  in- 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         47 

eluding  young  cattle,    horses,    sheep   and 
swine,  their  value  was  $978,872,785. 

With  these  few  leading  facts  before  him, 
the  reader  may  obtain  an  approximate  idea 
of  the  agricultural  wealth  of  the  country : 
and  he  must  remember,  that  the  very 
numerous  unmentioned  articles  would  swell 
the  agricultural  supplies  to  the  extent  of 
many  additional  millions.  It  is  claimed 
by  English  fanners,  that  in  some  particu- 
lars, their  method  of  farming  is  superior  to 
that  practised  in  this  country,  and  that  is 
undoubtedly  true,  but  on  the  other  hand  it 
has  been  demonstrated,  that  the  leading 
grains  can  be  produced  at  a  much  lower  cost 
in  the  United  States  than  in  England.  As 
this  is  pre-eminently  an  agricultural  coun- 
try, it  follows  that  here  the  most  numerous 
attempts  to  produce  labor-saving  implements 
have  been  directed  to  facilitate  the  labors 
of  the  farm.  The  extent  to  which  new 
agricultural  inventions  have  been  patented, 
is  so  great,  that  in  1869,  they  reached  the 
number  of  nineteen  hundred  (1900)  and  all 


48         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

of  theta  for  saving  muscular  power  on  the 
farm,  and  in  the  household.  A  particular 
account  of  them  is  as  follows  :  Churns  and 
churning,  130;  Corn-shellers  and  buskers, 
40;  Cultivators,  1 50  ;  Diggers  and  spaders, 
30 ;  Fertilizers,  6 ;  Forks  (hay,  manure, 
&c.,)  100  ;  Harrows,  drays  and  pulverizers, 
80;  Harvesters  and  attachments,  195; 
Hay-spreaders,  25;  Hoes,  25;  Mowing 
and  reaping  machines,  30;  Planters,  150; 
Plows  and  attachments,  255  ;  Pruning,  15  ; 
Rakes,  90;  Seeding  and  sowing,  80  ;  Sep- 
arators and  smut-machines,  50  ;  Straw,  hay 
and  fodder-cutters,  30;  Threshing-machines, 
35;  and  Yokes,  15.  In  the  more  settled  parts 
of  the  country,  the  old-fashioned  varieties 
of  the  hoe,  the  spade,  and  even  the  plough- 
share, are  now  looked  upon  as  barbarous 
contrivances,  and  in  their  place  the  farmers 
use  what  are  called  Steam  ploughs,  the 
Rotary  Spade,  the  Sulky  plough,  Horse 
Cultivators,  Shovel-ploughs,  as  well  as 
Reaping,  Mowing  and  Threshing  machines 
of  many  varieties.  The  improvements  that 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         49 

have  been  made  in  such  tools  as  the  shovel, 
spade,  hoe  and  forks,  are  so  great  that  they 
may  almost  be  considered  entirely  new  in- 
ventions. With  regard  to  these  and  many 
other  implements  of  husbandry  in  America, 
lightness,  simplicity  and  comparative  cheap- 
ness are  absolute!}'  essential  to  their  per- 
fection. One  of  the  effects,  if  not  the  most 
important,  of  these  labor-saving  machines 
has  been,  that,  while  one  man  has  been 
kept  in  the  field,  three  have  been  sent  to 
the  great  towns  to  prosecute  other  enter- 
prises of  profit,  or  have  entered  upon  the 
cultivation  of  other  farms.  The  organiza- 
tion of  Agricultural  Societies,  which  have 
done  much  to  perfect  the  science  of  tilling 
the  soil,  was  commenced  shortly  after  the 
establishment  of  the  Government  in  1775, 
and  their  influence,  in  connection  with  an- 
nual fairs,  has  been  wide-spread,  and  of  the 
greatest  advantage.  There  is  not  a  State 
in  the  Union,  which  does  not  boast  of  one 
of  them,  organized  for  the  benefit  of  all  the 
inhabitants  at  large.  Nor  ought  the  fact 


50         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

to  be  forgotten,  that  there  are  already  many 
Agricultural  Colleges  in  the  country,  and 
that  they  are  annually  increasing  in  num- 
bers and  influence.  And  then  again,  the 
agricultural  periodicals  are  numerous  and 
of  high  repute. 

But  notwithstanding  all  these  facts,  ex- 
perienced men  have  expressed  the  opinion, 
that  the  condition  of  Agriculture  in  this 
country  is  not  what  might  be  desired.  The 
great  trouble  is,  the  want  of  proper  method. 
The  art  is  as  yet  imperfectly  known  and 
practised,  and  the  American  system  is  full 
of  deficiencies.  The  domain  of  the  United 
States,  embraces  soil  capable  of  yielding 
the  richest  and  most  varied  productions,  in 
the  greatest  abundance ;  and  it  is  a  pecu- 
liar feature  of  the  country,  that  all  the  lands 
which  have  been  sold  by  the  Government, 
or  are  still  owned  by  the  same,  are  surveyed 
upon  a  system  of  squares  and  divided  into 
townships  of  six  miles  square,  sub-divided 
into  sections  and  quarter  sections,  whereby 
the  farms  are  generally  regular  in  shape, 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         51 

and  disputes  are  avoided  in  regard  to  boun- 
dary lines.  The  lands  belonging  to  the 
Government  are  sold  at  the  uniform  price 
of  one  dollar  and  a  quarter  ($1.25)  per  acre, 
so  that  for  one  hundred  dollars,  a  new  set- 
ler  can  receive  a  farm  of  eighty  acres  ;  but 
under  existing  laws,  a  foreigner,  if  of  age, 
and  intending  to  become  a  citizen,  obtains 
a  homestead  substantially  as  a  free  gift. 
The  total  quantity  of  land  owned  by  the 
Government  was  1,834,968,400  acres;  of 
which  447,266,190  acres  have  been  sold  ; 
and  the  amount  now  for  sale  is  1,387,732,- 
209  acres.  That  the  National  Government 
takes  a  deep  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the 
Agricultural  population  is  proven  by  the 
fact,  that  a  Department  of  Agriculture  exists 
in  Washington,  which  annually  publishes  a 
very  valuable  volume  of  miscellaneous  in- 
formation, and  supplies  seeds  and  cuttings 
for  all  who  may  apply  for  them,  while  the 
Postal  laws  of  the  country  allow  their  trans- 
portation through  the  mails  free  of  expense ; 
the  same  laws  making  only  a  small  charge 


52         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

for  the  exchange  of  seeds,  cuttings  and 
plants  between  private  parties ;  but  more 
than  all  that,  the  National  Government  has 
recently  made  a  grant  of  seven  millions 
(7,000,000.)  of  acres  of  land  for  the  benefit 
of  Agricultural  Colleges,  and  propositions 
are  now  pending  for  giving  away  nearly 
twenty  million  (20,000,000)  acres  of  land 
for  objects  directly  or  indirectly  connected 
with  the  farming  population  of  the  Repub- 
lic. The  total  number  of  farms  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  is  about  three  millions,  which 
gives  a  farm  for  every  thirteen  of  the  en- 
tire population  ;  and  the  largest  proportion 
of  these  farms  range  from  twenty  to  one 
hundred  acres. 

And  now  we  propose  to  give  a  descrip- 
tion in  general  terms  of  Farm  Life  in  the 
New  England  States,  (the  six  Eastern 
States.)  viz :  Maine,  Massachusetts,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  Connecticut  and 
Rhode  Island.  In  this  region  the  farms 
are  almost  universally  small,  ranging  from 
ten  to  one  hundred  acres,  and  stone  fences 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         53 

predominate  above  all  other  kinds.  The 
Agricultural  season  is  short,  winter  lasting 
through  half  the  year.  No  verdure  but 
that  of  evergreens  resists  the  annual  cold, 
and  an  unmelted  mass  of  snow  covers  the 
ground  for  months.  The  soils,  excepting 
in  the  more  extensive  valleys  are  poor  and 
rocky,  and  aside  from  those  farms  which 
are  given  up  chiefly  to  the  grazing  of  cattle 
or  the  production  of  hay,  the  products  of 
the  earth  are  only  obtained  by  the  severest 
kind  of  labor.  Along  the  sea  shore,  kelp 
and  fish  are  popular  manures,  but  in  the  in- 
terior, guano,  calcareous  manures,  and  the 
yield  of  the  barn  yards  are  employed.  The 
owner  is,  himself,  the  foremost  workman, 
and  his  sons,  his  principal  assistants :  and 
all  household  matters  are  performed  by  the 
females  of  the  family.  The  farmers  live  in 
comfortable  frame  houses,  very  frequently 
surrounded  with  flowers,  use  both  coal  and 
wood  for  fuel,  and  are  noted  for  their  fru- 
gality and  neatness.  Their  barns  are  spa- 
cious and  substantial.  They  produce  noth- 


54         LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

ing  for  exportation,  but  a  greater  variety 
of  crops  than  the  more  extensive  farmers, 
and  are  quite  content  if  they  can  obtain  a 
plain,  comfortable  support.  In  Vermont, 
the  raising  of  superior  breeds  of  horses  has 
been  a  specialty,  but  for  farm  work,  oxen 
are  more  popular  than  horses.  If  the  far- 
mers happen  to  have  a  small  surplus  of  any 
commodity,  they  dispose  of  it  in  a  neigh- 
boring town ;  and  thus  provide  themselves 
with  luxuries,  or  put  aside  a  little  money 
for  a  rainy  day.  In  some  localities  Agri- 
culture is  often  joined  to  other  employments 
such  as  fishing  and  shoemaking.  The  far- 
mers in  New  England,  as  well  as  through- 
out the  country,  are  generally  a  reading 
people,  and  profit  somewhat  by  the  published 
theories  on  the  science  of  Agriculture. 
Their  children  have  access  to  the  country 
schools,  but  the  sons  are  often  obliged  to 
help  their  parents  in  the  field  during  the 
vernal  months,  so  that  their  principal  time 
for  study  is  in  the  winter.  They  are  a 
church-going  people,  and  to  the  extent  of 


LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.          55 

their  means,  liberal  in  furthering  the  cause 
to  which  they  may  be  attached.  They  take 
an  interest  in  politics,  and  are  decided  in 
their  opinions.  They  are  social  in  their 
dispositions,  fond  of  visiting  their  friends, 
and  on  winter  evenings,  have  what  they  call 
apple-paring,  and  bed-quilting  frolics,  when 
their  homes  are  cheered  by  such  refresh- 
ments as  mince  and  pumpkin  pies,  as  well 
as  cider,  walnuts  and  apples.  Their  amuse- 
ments are  as  various  as  their  tastes,  but  the 
perpetual  struggle  with  mother  earth,  for 
the  means  of  living,  makes  them  careful  of 
their  time,  and  is  apt  to  induce  and  keep 
alive  the  most  serious  views  of  life.  On 
farms  lying  in  the  vicinity  of  villages,  it  is 
often  the  case,  that  certain  members  of  the 
family  obtain  positions  in  the  factories  or 
other  manufacturing  establishments,  where- 
by they  are  enabled  to  increase  their  means 
of  support.  As  soon  as  the  boys  attain  the 
age  of  manhood,  they  find  their  fields  of 
operation  circumscribed,  and  leaving  the 
paternal  roof,  wander  forth  into  the  world 


56         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

to  make  their  own  fortunes  : — some  of  them 
to  the  turmoil  and  strife  of  the  large  cities, 
and  others  to  the  more  inviting  regions  of 
the  great,  and  not  yet  fully  developed  West. 
In  New  England,  farm  life  is  to-day,  very 
much  what  it  was  a  generation  ago ;  and 
from  the  very  nature  of  the  cold  and  bar- 
ren soil,  will  so  continue  without  any  marked 
progress.  The  farmers  have  done  their 
best,  in  fact  all  that  could  be  done ;  every- 
thing is  finished  and  they  are  contented. 
It  is  not  that  the  spirit  of  competition  has 
died  out  there.  That  the  Agricultural  in- 
terests of  New  England  have  reached  and 
passed  the  period  of  culmination  is  undoubt- 
edly true.  The  farmers  of  this  region  are 
more  truly  the  yeomanry  of  the  land,  than 
any  other  class,  and  a  large  proportion  of 
them  are  natives  of  the  soil  they  now  culti- 
vate, and  like  the  venerable  oaks  and  elms, 
which  adorn  many  of  their  farms,  they  are 
content  to  live  in  the  present  as  in  the  past, 
hoping  that  any  family  offshoots  that  may 
have  been  planted  in  more  congenial  and 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         57 

productive  soils  will  be,  as  they  have  been 
in  unnumbered  instances,  a  blessing  to 
their  descendents. 

We  now  pass  over  into  what  are  called 
the  four  Middle  States  of  the  Union,  viz  : 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey  and 
Delaware,  where  we  shall  find  a  somewhat 
different  condition  of  affairs,  but  with  the 
stamp  of  New  England  manners  and  cus- 
toms everywhere  visible.  There  the  aver- 
age size  of  farms  is  between  one  hundred 
and  one  hundred  and  fifty  acres,  and  gener- 
ally speaking,  the  soil  is  productive.  The 
fences  are  usually  made  of  rails,  and  every 
variety  of  manure  is  employed.  If  not  rich, 
the  farmers  are  in  easy  circumstances,  and 
count  upon  annually  laying  up  something 
handsome  in  the  way  of  profits.  Though 
well  posted  in  their  business,  by  years  of 
practical  experience,  they  employ  a  needed 
supply  of  hands,  who  do  most  of  the  hard 
work,  while  their  own  time  is  occupied 
with  the  lighter  duties  of  the  farm  and  a 
general  supervision  of  affairs.  Their  houses 


58         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

are  comfortable  and  often  elegant,  and  afford 
ample  accommodation  for  the  proprietor,  his 
family  and  his  assistants.  While  those  of 
New  York,  where  the  native  American  ele- 
ment prevails,  fare  sumptuously  on  the  food 
of  their  own  raising,  and  have  become  cele- 
brated for  their  superior  butter  and  cheese, 
the  farmers  of  Dutch  descent,  located  in 
Pennsylvania  are  charged  with  never  eat- 
ing what  might  be  readily  sold  at  the  near- 
est market.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  these 
farmers,  that  their  barns  are  unequalled  in 
this  country,  oftentimes  better  than  the 
houses  they  live  in,  and  that  with  them, 
the  profits  of  their  style  of  farming  are 
always  satisfactory.  With  regard  to  the 
cheese  business,  it  has  come  to  be  so  ex- 
tensive, that  we  may  allude  to  it  more  par- 
ticularly. The  entire  produce  of  last  year 
was  about  one  hundred  millions  of  pounds, 
three-fourths  of  which  was  made  in  the 
Middle  States,  but  the  largest  amount  in 
New  York. 

From  time  immemorial  the  Dutch  have 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         59 

had  control  of  this  business,  but  the  exports 
from  this  country  are  now  about  double  of 
the  exports  from  Holland.  Formerly  it  was 
the  custom  of  the  farmers  to  make  cheese 
upon  their  respective  farms,  but  it  is  now 
made  in  regularly  established  factories, 
which  are  supported  by  the  farmers  located 
in  their  vicinity.  The  total  number  of  these 
factories  now  flourishing  in  this  country  is 
thirteen  hundred,  and  they  are  supplied 
with  milk  from  not  less  than  three  hundred 
thousand  cows.  In  New  Jersey  and  Dela- 
ware and  on  Long  Island,  where  the  chief 
attention  is  devoted  to  fruits  and  vegetables 
and  where  are  to  be  found  the  most  beau- 
tiful gardens  in  the  country,  the  hired  hands 
are  more  numerous  than  elsewhere,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  farms  or  gardens, 
but  their  positions  are  not  so  permanent. 
Various  kinds  of  berries  are  here  raised  in 
the  greatest  abundance,  and  the  surplus 
hands  left  unemployed  after  the  annual 
gatherings  have  to  seek  other  employment. 
In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  the  pro- 


60         LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

prietor  joins  his  hired  men  in  the  work  to 
be  done,  whether  in  casting  the  seed,  driv- 
ing the  machinery  employed,  or  gathering 
in  the  harvests  ;  they  all  occupy  the  same 
platform  as  citizens,  whether  naturalized,  or 
natives  of  the  country  ;  free  access  to  schools 
and  churches  is  enjoyed  by  all  without  re- 
gard to  family  or  fortune  ;  and  the  man  who 
is  wrorking  to-day  as  a  hired  hand,  knows 
full  well,  that  if  he  continues  to  be  true  to 
himself  and  his  opportunities,  he  will  yet  be 
respected  as  a  proprietor.  By  means  of 
newspapers  and  books,  they  keep  up  with 
the  spirit  of  the  age  ;  and,  though  generally 
disinclined  to  participate  in  the  partizan 
squabbles  of  the  day,  they  are  by  no  means 
indifferent  to  the  welfare  of  the  country, 
and  are  frequently  called  upon  to  fill  offices 
of  trust  and  honor.  They  rise  early,  eat 
a  frugal  meal  at  noon,  and  retire  at  the 
coming  on  of  darkness,  excepting  in  the 
winter,  which  is  their  time  for  visiting  and 
home  enjoyments,  and  this  is  true  of  the 
farming  classes  generally  throughout  the 


LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         61 

country.  What  are  called  fancy-farmers 
are  probably  more  numerous  in  the  Middle 
States  than  in  any  other  region,  but  these 
men  are  apt  to  spend  more  money  than  they 
make ;  and  an  idea  of  the  wealth  which 
some  of  them  attain,  may  be  gathered  from 
the  fact  that  there  is  one  family  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Genessee  in  New  York,  who  own 
not  less  than  thirty  thousand  acres  of  land, 
and  all  of  it  in  the  highest  state  of  cultiva- 
tion. It  is  this  class  of  the  more  wealthy 
farmers  residing  in  all  the  States,  who  great- 
ly benefit  the  country  by  introducing  the 
best  kinds  of  stock  from  foreign  countries, 
who  have  been  known  to  pay  twenty  thou- 
sand dollars  for  a  single  stallion  (horse.) 
two  or  three  thousand  for  a  heifer,  a  ram, 
or  a  bull,  or  one  hundred  dollars  for  a  trio 
of  fowls,  consisting  of  one  male  and  two  fe- 
males. It  was  one  of  these  extensive  far- 
mers who  inaugurated  the  plan  of  issuing 
printed  cards  with  the  following  regulations 
for  the  guidance  of  his  men.  "  Regularity 
in  hours. — Punctuality  in  cleaning  and  put- 


62         LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

ting  away  implements. — Humanity  to  all 
the  animals. — Neatness  and  cleanliness  in 
personal  appearance. — Decency  in  deport- 
ment and  conversation. — Obedience  to  the 
proprietor,  and  ambition  to  excel  in  farm- 
ing." Extensive  and  various  as  are  the 
farming  interests  of  the  Middle  States,  and 
so  great  are  the  temptations  to  go  farther 
west,  the  demand  for  farm  hands  and  female 
servants  is  always  equal  to  the  supply,  and 
while  the  men  receive  from  fifteen  to  thirty 
dollars  per  month  with  board,  the  women 
receive  from  eight  to  fifteen  dollars  per 
month  for  home  work,  and  of  these,  by  far 
the  largest  proportion  are  from  England, 
Ireland  and  Germany.  The  secret  of  the 
unparalleled  growth,  and  the  daily  increas- 
ing power  of  the  United  States,  is,  that  the 
Government  in  its  practical  working,  is  con- 
fined to  the  narrowest  limits,  that  it  is  the 
Agent,  not  the  Master  of  the  people,  and 
that  the  latter  initiate  all  changes  in  its 
political  and  social  life.  It  is  therefore  the 
condition  of  the  success  of  a  settlement  that 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         63 

the  immigrant  relies  on  his  own  strength, 
acts  on  his  own  responsibility,  and  seeks 
by  his  own  efforts  the  prosperity  which  he 
is  sure  to  find  if  undisturbed.  In  spite  of 
obstacles  and  disappointments,  he  will  make 
his  way  and  ultimately  attain  his  objects. 
In  the  States  now  under  consideration,  as 
well  as  in  all  the  States  of  the  Union,  ex- 
cepting New  York  and  a  few  others,  a  mar- 
ried woman  may  not  convey  her  separate 
real  estate,  except  in  a  joint  deed  with  her 
husband,  and  yet  in  most  of  the  States,  the 
separate  property  of  the  wife  is  recognized. 
There  is  no  imprisonment  for  debt  in  any 
part  of  the  Republic ;  and,  when  a  farmer 
has  become  involved,  (in  more  than  half 
the  States,)  his  homestead  is  exempt  from 
execution  ;  and  in  all  of  them  household 
furniture  to  the  extent  of  five  hundred  dol- 
lars, wearing  apparel,  tools  and  books  neces- 
sary to  carry  on  business,  one  to  five  cows, 
one  yoke  of  oxen,  ten  sheep,  carts  and  farm- 
ing implements  ;  and  the  uniform  and  arms 
of  any  man  who  is  or  has  been  in  the  pub- 


64         LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

He  service,  are  also  exempt  from  the  grasp 
of  the  creditor.  When  the  head  of  a  family 
dies,  without  making  a  will,  his  property  is 
equally  divided  among  his  children  or  their 
offspring,  and  when  there  are  no  lineal  de- 
scendants, the  estate  goes  to  the  next  of 
kin. 

The  next  division  of  farm  life  we  have 
to  consider,  is  that  of  the  Western  States. 
Of  these  there  are  sixteen  in  all,  thirteen 
in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  river,  and 
three  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Their  extent 
is  so  immense,  and  their  products  so  numer- 
ous, that  it  is  difficult  for  the  mind  to  com- 
prehend their  importance  and  influence. 
Four  of  them  were,  until  recently,  classed 
among  the  Slave  States,  and  because  the 
system  of  slave  labor  therein  has  become 
greatly  modified  by  free  labor,  they  can 
hardly  be,  with  propriety,  embraced  in  our 
present  review.  Asa  wheat-producing  re- 
gion, the  Western  States  have  progressed 
in  a  manner  perfectly  amazing,  until  they 
now  stand  unsurpassed  by  any  other  region 


LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         65 

of  like  extent  in  the  world.  Although  the 
population  has  increased  about  fifty  per 
cent,  in  the  last  twenty  years,  the  increase 
of  produce  has  greatly  exceeded  that  of 
population.  But  the  relative  value  of  all 
the  other  cereals,  and  other  farm  produc- 
tions in  these  States  is  quite  as  extensive 
and  remarkable  as  that  of  wheat.  That 
the  people  who  are  annually  bringing  out 
of  the  soil  such  immense  wealth,  are  wide- 
awake and  industrious  is  self-evident.  Gen- 
erally speaking  the  farms  are  much  larger 
than  those  in  the  Middle  States,  and  the 
farm  hands  very  much  more  numerous. 
Very  many  of  the  farmers  with  whom  we 
come  in  contact,  seem  to  have  settled  in  the 
country  with  limited  means.  Some  bought 
land,  with  no  more  money  than  would  pay 
the  first  instalment  on  it,  and  had  to  work 
for  others  to  make  money  to  pay  the  other 
instalments  as  they  came  due.  They  are 
able,  in  this  way,  in  a  few  years  to  settle 
down  and  cultivate  their  own  soil :  and  this 
method  of  operating  is  in  progress  to-day. 


66         LTFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

When  farms  are  rented,  which  is  often  done, 
the  system  adopted  is  ns  follows.  If  the 
tenant  is  not  able  to  provide  stock,  imple- 
ments and  seed,  the  proprietor  supplies  him 
with  all  these  and  then  allows  him  one-third 
of  the  grain  crops.  In  this  way  many  a 
man  works  himself  into  a  farm  of  his  own. 
The  ordinary  rate  of  interest  on  borrowed 
money  is  ten  per  cent.,  but  even  at  this 
high  rate  it  usually  pays  a  farmer  well,  and 
there  is  every  facility  given  to  respectable 
and  industrious  men.  There  are  often  cul- 
tivated farms  in  the  market  for  sale,  but 
persons  desiring  to  purchase  cannot  always 
be  present;  and  in  buying  second  hand 
farms,  it  is  well  to  be  certain,  that  it  has 
not  been  previously  mortgaged.  As  is  the 
case  in  all  other  branches  of  business,  the 
man  who  has  the  best  capacity  is  likely  to 
be  the  most  successful,  and  the  operations 
of  some  of  the  more  famous  farmers  in  the 
West  sound  more  like  romance  than  reality. 
For  example,  there  was  lately  one  farm  in 
Illinois  which  contained  about  forty  thou- 


LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         67 

sand  acres,  with  one  pasture  Geld  of  eight 
thousand  acres  :  its  chief  production  was 
corn,  all  of  which  was  consumed  upon  the 
farm  itself;  but  in  one  year  the  proprietor 
sent  to  New  York  City,  cattle  enough  to  bring 
seventy  thousand  dollars,  while  his  home 
stock  was  valued  at  one  million  of  dollars  ; 
and  yet  the  man  lived  in  a  small  house,  in 
the  most  simple  and  unpretending  style, 
and  habitually  sat  down  at  the  same  table 
with  his  hired  men.  But  the  farming  ex- 
ploits of  this  man,  were  eclipsed  subse- 
quently, by  those  of  another  who  is  now 
carrying  on  a  farm  of  fifty  thousand  acres. 
With  regard  to  another  of  the  model  farms 
of  Illinois,  we  may  state,  that  it  contains 
thirty-six  thousand  acres,  and  last  year 
had  one  corn  field  of  five  thousand  five 
hundred  acres  yielding  two  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand  bushels,  three  thousand 
tons  of  hay,  four  thousand  head  of  cattle, 
and  gave  employment  to  eighty-five  plows, 
fifteen  planting  machines  and  fifteen  mow- 
ing machines.  The  he^e  fencing  on  this 


68         LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

farm  measures  about  one  hundred  and  thirty 
miles,  and  contains  also  about  eighty  miles 
of  board  fencing.  There  is  however  still 
another  farm,  located  in  Illinois,  which 
ought  to  be  mentioned  in  this  place,  as  it  is 
reputed  to  be  one  of  the  most  extensive 
and  successful  in  the  world.  It  is  called 
the  Burr  Oak  Farm  and  is  owned  by  a  man 
named  Sullivant.  It  embraces  sixty-five 
square  miles  ;  and  although  the  owner  com- 
menced work  upon  it  only  four  years  ago, 
he  has  at  the  present  time,  growing  upon  it 
not  less  than  eleven  thousand  acres  of  corn, 
and  five  thousand  acres  besides,  planted  in 
miscellaneous  crops.  The  hedges  which 
cross,  re-cross  and  surround  the  farm,  meas- 
ure three  hundred  miles,  the  board  fences 
six  miles  and  the  ditches  one  hundred  and 
fifty  miles.  The  working  men  employed 
on  this  farm  are  mostly  Swedes  and  Ger- 
mans, number  two  hundred  and  fifty,  and 
are  constantly  employed  from  the  first  of 
April  to  the  first  of  January.  They  work 
ten  hours  per  day,  report  to  the  proprietor 


LIFE  AMONG  FAEMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         69 

every  evening,  and  are  not  allowed  the  use 
of  any  intoxicating  drinks.  The  working 
animals  of  the  farm  consist  of  three  hundred 
and  fifty  mules,  fifty  horses  and  fifty  yoke  of 
oxen,  and  it  is  amply  supplied  with  the  ordi- 
nary stock  of  an  extensive  farm  ;  and  the 
leading  machinery  employed  consists  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  steel  plows,  seventy-five 
breaking  plows  ;  one  hundred  and  forty-two 
cultivators ;  forty-five  corn  planters,  and 
twenty-five  harrows ;  and  it  has  one  ditch- 
ing plow  which  is  drawn  by  sixty-eight  oxen 
and  managed  by  eight  men.  The  house  in 
which  the  proprietor  resides  is  a  common 
wooden  structure,  comfortable,  but  without 
the  least  pretention.  It  will  be  understood 
of  course,  that  farms  of  this  extent  are  not 
found  in  every  county  or  State ;  but  they 
give  us  an  idea  of  the  spirit  that  animates  the 
farming  fraternity  generally.  Let  us  now  on 
the  other  hand,  look  at  the  operations  of 
one  or  two  small  farmers  in  Illinois.  One 
man,  for  example  purchased  eighty  acres 
of  prairie  land  for  $360.  Spent  $500  on 


70         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

improvements,  his  crops  for  the  first  year 
brought  him  over  $1,500,  and  at  the  close 
of  the  third  year,  his  form  was  sold  for 
$2,000.  Another  man  with  a  capital  of 
only  $700,  bought  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres  :  his  annual  produce  for  six  years 
was  $2,000,  at  the  end  of  which  time  he  was 
worth  about  ten  thousand  dollars.  And 
such  instances  as  the  above  have  occurred 
by  the  thousand  in  the  great  West.  As 
we  glance  over  the  immense  number  of 
farmers  who  are  toiling  throughout  the 
Western  States,  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
depict  their  manners  and  customs  with  any- 
thing like  accuracy.  So  many  are  the  nat- 
ionalities which  compose  the  great  mass  of 
inhabitants,  the  mere  mention  of  these  is 
indeed  a  kind  of  description.  In  Illinois 
and  Ohio,  the  Germans,  Irish  and  English 
are  about  equally  divided ;  in  Wisconsin 
the  English  and  Germans  predominate ;  and 
Missouri  is  most  extensively  settled  by  the 
Germans.  In  the  States  bordering  on  the 
Great  Lakes  and  the  Upper  Mississippi 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         71 

several  Scandinavian  colonies  have  been 
established  ;  and  there  has  been  a  consider- 
able immigration  of  Chinese  into  California, 
but  this  latter  class  has  not  manifested  any 
strong  predisposition  for  Agricultural  pur- 
suits. The  great  variety  of  nationalities 
which  sometimes  congregate  in  one  region 
was  strickingly  exemplified  a  few  years  ago 
when  the  State  of  Wisconsin  was  obliged 
to  publish  its  Governor's  message  in  not 
less  than  eight  languages.  The  amount  of 
money  sent  across  the  ocean  by  immigrants, 
to  friends  left  behind,  principally  to  pay 
their  passage  to  America,  is  surprising. 
From  the  official  returns  of  Emigration  Com- 
missioners of  England,  it  appears  that  in 
1870  there  were  sent  from  this  country  to 
Ireland,  principally,  $3,630,040  in  gold,  of 
which  §1,663,190,  was  for  pre-paid  passage. 
In  the  twenty-three  years  from  1848  to  1870 
the  amount  of  money  sent  was  $81,670,000 
in  gold,  being  an  average  of  about  $3,889,- 
047  yearly.  But  this  amount  is  probably 
somewhat  below  the  actual  amount,  as 


72         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

it  only  includes  what  has  been  sent  through 
banks  and  commercial  houses.  And  these 
sums,  large  as  they  are,  are  made  up  by 
careful  savings  from  the  wages  of  servant 
girls  and  farm  laborers.  In  California, 
Missouri  and  Ohio,  the  grape  has  been  so 
extensively  cultivated  as  to  give  them  the 
reputation  of  being  the  Wine  producing 
regions  of  the  United  States ;  and  among 
their  vineyards  we  find  many  of  the  habits 
prevailing  which  are  common  to  the  wine 
districts  of  Europe.  In  California  a  farm 
is  called  a  Ranch,  and  one  of  the  most  noted 
ones  in  that  State  may  be  described  as  fol- 
lows. It  contains  eighteen  thousand  (18,- 
000)  acres ;  and  last  year  sixteen  hun- 
dred (1600)  acres  were  devoted  to  wheat, 
eight  hundred  (800)  to  barley,  two  hundred 
(200)  to  oats, two  hundred  (200)  to  meadow, 
and  about  fifteen  thousand  (15,000)  acres 
to  orchards,  vineyards  and  pasturage.  The 
fruit  trees  number  eight  thousand  (8000,) 
the  grape-vines  fifty  thousand  (50,000)  ; 
and  the  live  stock  consists  of  two  hundred 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.          73 

(200)  horses,  one  thousand  (1000)  head  of 
cattle,  three  thousand  (3000)  sheep  and  two 
thousand  (2000)  swine;  and  the  entire 
domain  is  surrounded  with  good  fences. 
From  the  above  and  other  facts  already 
narrated,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  United 
States  are  supplied  with  all  kinds  of  farm- 
ers; some  cultivating  their  thousands  of 
acres,  and  others  their  half  dozen  ;  and  yet 
they  all  seem  to  live  comfortably,  and  the 
great  majority  are  independent.  And  there 
are  numerous  instances  of  American  women 
who  have  been,  and  are  to-day,  quite  suc- 
cessful in  the  management  of  farms  ;  and 
what  will  be  the  result  of  the  extensive 
emigration  from  China  to  this  country  now 
going  on,  is  a  problem,  which  can  only  be 
settled  by  the  future. 

Our  next  subject  for  consideration  is  the 
Plantation  Life  of  the  Southern  States. 
Only  about  six  years  have  now  passed  away, 
since  the  close  of  the  civil  war,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  emancipation  of  more  than 
four  millions  of  slaves,  and  a  glance  at  the 


74         LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

condition  of  the  South,  before  that  great 
event,  would  seem  to  be  necessary.  In 
1860  there  were  fifteen  States  in  which 
Slavery  existed,  and  all  of  them,  excepting 
five,  made  war  upon  the  General  Govern- 
ment— four  of  them  having  already  been 
mentioned,  as  among  the  Western  States. 
They  contained  a  population  of  4,334,250, 
of  whom  only  383,637  were  Slave  owners. 
The  number  of  Plantations  under  cultiva- 
tion was  estimated  at  seven  hundred  and 
sixty-five  thousand,  comprehending  about 
seventy-five  millions  of  acres :  and  as  to  the 
cotton  and  sugar,  rice,  wheat,  corn,  and 
live-stock,  which  were  produced  upon  them, 
they  can  only  be  appreciated  by  consulting 
the  publications  of  the  Census  Office.  The 
planter  was  the  owner,  not  only  of  broad 
acres,  almost  without  number,  but  also  of, 
from  ten  to  one  thousand  menials  or  slaves, 
whom  he  fed  and  clothed  for  his  own  exclu- 
sive profit,  and  who.  for  the  most  part,  did 
his  bidding  without  a  murmur  or  thought 
beyond  the  passing  hour.  He  lived  at  his 


LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         75 

ease  among  books  and  in  the  dispensation 
of  a  liberal  hospitality,  leaving  all  the  labor 
on  his  plantation  to  the  direction  of  an  over- 
seer, who  spent  most  of  his  time  on  horse- 
back, issuing  orders  to  the  working  men 
and  women,  and  watching  the  regular  pro- 
gress of  affairs.  According  to  his  wealth, 
the  planter  lived  in  a  house,  or  an  elegant 
mansion,  while  his  slaves  were  domiciled 
in  rude  but  comfortable  cabins.  They  re- 
ceived a  supply  of  provisions,  but  no  com- 
pensation in  money;  although  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  allow  them  the  use  of  a  patch  of 
ground  for  their  own  benefit,  and  a  fragment 
of  time  out  of  each  day  or  week  to  cultivate 
it.  But  all  this  is  now  changed  :  Slave 
labor  has  no  existence  on  the  soil  of  the 
United  States:  and  the  opinion  is  universal 
that  the  suppression  of  slave  labor  will  ulti- 
mately add  greatly  to  the  national  advance- 
ment of  all  the  States  in  which  it  formerly 
existed.  Among  the  results  following  the 
late  rebellion,  was  the  fact,  that  much  of 
the  property  in  the  Southern  States  passed 


76         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

into  new  hands.  Many  old  plantations 
were  abandoned  by  their  owners  and  have 
never  been  reclaimed,  others  have  been  con- 
fiscated, and  others  sold  at  a  ruinous  sacri- 
fice. Many  of  the  soldiers,  who  went 
South,  who  had  been  raised  among  the 
rocky  hills  of  the  North,  became  in  love 
with  the  rich  and  beautiful  fields  and  val- 
leys of  the  South,  and  thousands  resolved 
to  settle  in  the  new  country.  '1  hey  married 
Southern  women,  formed  new  alliances  and 
associations,  and  have  opened  up  a  new  ca- 
reer for  the  South  which  is  rapidly  becom- 
ing more  and  more  salutary  in  its  influences. 
The  great  landed  estates  which  have  been 
cut  up,  may  be  purchased  by  all  new  com- 
ers, at  a  very  small  cost,  while  the  black 
race  to  a  great  extent  have  settled  upon 
small  patches  of  land,  where  they  can  main- 
tain themselves  in  comfort  and  enjoy  an  in- 
dependence of  thought  and  feeling  which 
they  did  not  know  under  the  old  order  of 
things.  Whole  plantations  have  been  set- 
tled by  families,  of  owners,  who  were  form- 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         77 

erly  slaves  upon  the  same  estates.  Men 
who  were  formerly  overseers  or  superin- 
tendents, are  themselves  settling  down  upon 
their  own  newly  acquired  farms.  Although 
attempts  to  obtain  laborers  from  China  and 
Sweden  have  been  made,  the  principal  cul- 
tivators of  the  Southern'  States  are  the 
Freedmen  :  who,  indolent  by  nature,  do  as 
little  work  as  possible,  will  not  hire  out  for 
more  than  a  single  year,  and  one  of  the  re- 
sults of  their  freedom  is,  that  they  will  not 
let  their  wives  work  as  in  the  olden  times. 
To  retain  their  services,  the  planter  is 
obliged  to  praise  and  humor  them  in  many 
ways.  The  terms  upon  which  the  negroes 
are  hired  is  generally  to  let  them  have  one- 
half  of  what  they  produce,  but  when  sup- 
ported by  the  planter  they  receive  but  one 
quarter  of  what  they  produce.  When  the 
planters  are  attentive  to  their  business  they 
almost  invariably  succeed,  and  when  un- 
successful as  farmers,  they  are  apt  to  help 
their  pockets  by  keeping  small  country 
stores,  and  in  all  the  towns  are  located  men 


78         LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

• 

who  are  called  warehouse-men,  whose  busi- 
ness is  to  receive,  store  and  sell  all  the  cot- 
ton or  other  produce  which  may  be  con- 
signed to  their  care.  What  the  people  of 
the  South  now  need  is  help — not  lands ; 
and  in  many  of  the  most  fertile  regions, 
every  inducement  is  thrown  out  to  invite 
emigration  from  the  North.  But,  after  all, 
it  is  idle  to  suppose,  that  the  griefs,  the 
passions  and  animosities  engendered  by  the 
late  rebellion,  will  die  out  while  the  present 
generation  survives.  Too  many  brave  men 
have  perished,  too  many  homes  made  deso- 
late, too  many  families  broken  up  and  re- 
duced to  beggary,  to  expect  anything  of 
that  sort.  Men  whom  it  has  impoverished 
will  live  and  die  poor,  remembering  con- 
stantly, the  cause  of  their  poverty.  Widows 
will  long  mourn  over  husbands,  children 
over  fathers,  slain  in  battle.  A  new  and 
happier  era  is  in  store  for  the  rising  genera- 
tion ;  but  its  advance  will  be  slow.  The 
people  of  the  North  and  of  the  South,  it  is 
fondly  hoped  and  believed,  will  again  be- 


LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.          79 

come  a  happy,  a  united,  and  prosperous 
people !  united  in  interests,  in  pursuits,  in 
intelligence,  and  in  patriotic  devotion  to 
their  united  country. 

Of  all  the  products  grown  in  the  Southern 
States  the  most  important  and  universal  is 
Cotton,  and  it  has  been  asserted  that  it  was 
this  single  commodity  which  prevented  that 
portion  of  the  Union  from  relapsing  into 
abject  poverty.  Everything  was  sacrificed 
to  Slavery,  and  Slavery  sacrificed  every- 
thing to  itself;  and  as  there  were  not  slaves 
enough  to  cultivate  the  soil  as  it  needed, 
cotton  raising  was  all  that  saved  the  coun- 
try. The  principal  States  where  cotton  is 
now  grown  are  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Lou- 
isiana, Georgia,  Texas,  and  Arkansas,  and 
in  all  of  them,  efforts  are  being  made  for 
the  introduction  of  Chinese  labor.  The 
cultivation  of  rice  is  limited  to  three  States, 
South  Carolina,  Georgia  and  Louisiana : 
Sugar  cane  and  its  products, — in  the  way 
of  Sugar  and  Molasses, — to  Louisiana  :  In 
Florida  considerable  attention  is  paid  to  the 


80         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

cultivation  of  oranges,  lemons,  and  other 
tropical  fruits  :  Wheat  and  tobacco  have 
occupied  the  chief  attention  of  farmers  in 
Virginia  and  the  neighboring  States  of 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky  :  North  Carolina 
has  acquired  a  reputation  for  its  sweet  po- 
tatoes and  ground  nuts.  Indian  Corn  is 
an  important  product  in  all  the  Southern 
States  :  while  the  mountain  lands,  which 
in  all  directions  are  covered  with  grass  as 
well  as  extensive  forests,  are  devoted  to  the 
grazing  of  cattle  in  great  numbers,  where 
they  flourish  throughout  the  year  without 
shelter  or  any  special  care.  In  all  the 
States  lying  directly  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico 
the  climate  is  mild,  the  winters  short,  open, 
and  delightful,  and  farm  work  can  be  done 
every  month  in  the  year.  They  begin  there 
to  make  their  gardens  in  December,  and 
until  the  following  December  there  is  a 
continuous  succession  of  crops.  The  peo- 
ple live  easily  and  produce  more  for  the 
same  amount  of  labor  than  in  any  of  the 
Northern  States.  Lands  are  cheap  and 


LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         81 

may  often  be  paid  for  by  a  single  crop. 
The  timber  is  everywhere  magnificent,  and 
the  lands  are  irrigated  by  numerous  streams, 
and  adapted  to  an  unlimited  variety  of  pro- 
ducts. And  for  the  raising  of  cattle  there 
is  not  a  region  probably,  in  the  world,  bet- 
ter suited  for  that  purpose  than  the  exten- 
sive State  of  Texas.  In  some  localities, 
the  cattle  maybe  counted  by  the  thousand, 
and  it  is  an  amazing  fact  that  droves  of 
them  are  annually  sent  by  the  Stock-raisers 
as  far  off  as  California ;  and  Texas  cattle 
have  even  been  butchered  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  and  even  cargoes  of  Texas  beef 
have  been  shipped  in  ice  to  Philadelphia. 
From  ten  to  twelve  men  are  required  for  a 
herd  of  a  thousand  cattle,  with  two  horses 
or  mules  to  each  man,  for  day  and  night 
duty,  the  cattle  needing  to  be  herded  at 
night  to  prevent  stampedes.  For  those  who 
have  never  witnessed  its  operations,  it  is 
difficult  to  realize  the  extent  of  this  cattle 
traffic,  and  it  is  sometimes  the  case  that  the 
whole  earth  seems  to  bo  covered  with  the 


82         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

herds,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  over  the 
vast  prairies.  The  class  of  people  common- 
ly known  as  the  "Texas  Cow-boys"  are 
indeed  a  power  in  the  land,  whose  exploits 
and  lives  of  adventure  are  more  like  romance 
than  reality.  And  here,  in  passing,  we  may 
with  propriety  devote  a  paragraph  to  the 
various  modes  employed  by  farmers  in  Fenc- 
ing. In  those  regions  where  loose  rocks  are 
abundant,  stone  walls  are  almost  universal: 
where  both  stone  and  wood  are  scarce,  they 
have  a  fashion  of  planting  trees  and  shrub- 
bery :  as  a  matter  of  taste,  wire  fences  are 
occasionally  employed.  In  all  localities 
where  wood  is  abundant,  they  make  what 
are  called  post  and  rail  and  worm  fences. 
It  is  said  that  the  fences  of  New  York  have 
cost  $144,000,000,  those  of  Pennsylvania 
$120,000,000,  Ohio  $115,000,000,  and 
South  Carolina  $20,000,000,  while  the 
fences  of  the  whole  Union  are  estimated 
at  $1,300,000,000.  These  figures  are  enor- 
mous, but  they  tend  to  exhibit  the  extent 
of  the  farming  interests  of  America. 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         83 

Having  now  taken  a  general  survey  of 
the  Agricultural  population  of  America, 
we  shall  conclude  what  we  have  to  say, 
with  a  few  remarks  on  their  manners  and 
customs,  as  exemplified  by  certain  amuse- 
ments, which  are  for  the  most,  peculiar 
to  this  country.  And  first,  as  to  the 
Sugar-Making  Frolics.  In  various  parts  of 
the  Union,  large  quantities  of  sugar  are  an- 
nually made  from  the  sap  of  the  Maple  tree. 
The  moment  winter  breaks,  and  the  sap 
begins  to  ascend  in  the  spring,  the  trees  are 
tapped,  and  the  liquid  thus  obtained  is  boiled 
down  until  it  becomes  a  rich  syrup  or  gran- 
ulated sugar.  All  this  takes  place  in  the 
dense  woods,  and  most  of  the  work  is  per- 
formed at  night.  At  the  close  of  the  sea- 
son the  farmers  invite  their  friends  and 
neighbors  to  a  kind  of  jubilee  which  is  held 
in  the  sugar  camps,  and  where,  with  sump- 
tuous fare,  followed  by  music  and  dancing, 
the  entire  night  is  given  to  enjoyment ;  and 
when  the  last  cauldron  of  sugar  has  been 
made,  and  daylight  has  appeared,  the  com- 


84    LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

pany  is  dispersed,  and  the  sugar  utensils 
are  packed  away  until  the  coming  of  another 
season.  Corresponding  to  the  above,  in 
most  of  the  corn-growing  regions  they  have 
what  are  called  "  Corn  Hustings"  This 
entertainment  occurs  when  a  farmer  is  anx- 
ious to  prepare  for  market  an  unusual  quan- 
tity of  the  yellow  maize ;  and  in  the  North 
or  West,  when  the  young  men  and  country 
lasses  have  met,  they  are  piloted  to  the 
spacious  and  sweet-smelling  barn,  and  for 
a  stated  time  all  work  without  ceas'ing,  un- 
til the  allotted  task  is  performed ;  an  ad- 
journment then  takes  place  to  the  farm 
house,  where  feasting  and  dancing  continue 
all  the  night  long.  When  this  frolic  occurs 
in  the  South,  the  colored  people  there  do 
the  work,  and  enjoy  themselves  in  their 
own  rude,  but  amusing  ways,  while  the 
white  people  for  whom  they  may  happen 
to  be  working,  act  as  the  hosts,  content  to 
enjoy  the  laughable  scenes  brought  to  view. 
In  the  New  England  States,  especially  those 
regions  bordering  on  the  Sea,  they  have 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         85 

what  are  called  "  Clam  Bakes."  These  are 
usually  attended  by  men  only,  who  con- 
gregate from  various  quarters  ;  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exchanging  political  opinions,  and 
having  a  systematic  good  time,  when 
speeches  are  delivered,  and  large  quantities 
of  cheering  beverages  are  imbibed,  as  well 
as  Clams  eaten,  after  a  primitive  fashion. 
The  shell  fish  are  roasted  in  an  open  field 
and  duly  prepared  with  the  desired  condi- 
ments. These  affairs  take  place  in  the  sum- 
mer after  the  leading  harvests  have  been 
gathered  in.  In  the  Southern  States,  cer- 
tain festivals  are  common,  but  more  so  be- 
fore the  late  war  than  now,  which  are 
known  as  "  Barbecues."  They  are  political, 
and  sometimes  bring  together  very  large 
numbers  of  the  planters  and  their  families, 
and  the  time  is  generally  devoted  to  speech- 
making,  happily  varied  by  eating  and  drink- 
ing the  good  things  of  the  land.  The  prin- 
cipal food  on  these  occasions,  consists  of 
beef  or  mutton,  and  the  oxen  or  sheep  are 
roasted  entire,  over  a  pit  duly  prepared  and 


86         UFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

filled  with  burning  coals.  The  cooks  and 
caterers  are  generally  negro  men  and  wo- 
men, and  as  they  have  the  privilege  of  in- 
viting their  own  friends,  the  groves  where 
they  assemble  present  a  varied  and  fantastic 
scene.  The  young  people  have  it  all  their 
own  way.  and  there  is  no  end  to  the  variety 
of  their  amusements.  Another  rural  cus- 
tom is  known  as  a  "  House-Raising!'  This 
occurs  after  some  farmer  has  prepared  his 
timber  for  a  new  house  or  barn,  when  he 
invites  his  friends  and  neighbors  to  come 
and  help  him  to  lift  the  timbers  and  cross 
pieces  into  their  proper  places.  This  invi- 
tation is  always  cheerfully  accepted,  and 
most  of  the  time  is  devoted  to  downright 
hard  work.  But  after  the  task  has  been 
accomplished  the  men  have  a  substantial 
feast  and  a  good  long  talk  about  their  farms, 
their  crops  and  cattle,  and  commonly  sepa- 
rate with  a  warm  brotherly  feeling  for  each 
other  and  for  their  fellow-men  everywhere. 
In  some  of  the  fruit-growing  regions,  large 
quantities  of  apples  are  stripped  of  their 


LIFE  AMONG   FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.         87 

skins,  cut  into  quarter  pieces,  and  hung  up 
to  dry  for  winter  use,  and  in  that  condition 
become  a  source  of  revenue.  Out  of  this 
variety  of  business  has  grown  an  Autum- 
nal festival  called  an  "Apple-Paring."  This 
takes  place  in  the  evening,  the  guests  are 
invited  as  to  an  ordinary  party,  and  after 
a  few  hours  attention  to  business,  the  night 
is  given  up  to  feasting  and  dancing,  or  the 
playing  of  innocent  games  by  the  young 
people  who  compose  the  majority.  Ball- 
playing  and  Sleigh-riding,  are  two  other  pas- 
times in  which  the  Americans  indulge  w;th 
rare  gusto.  By  the  rural  population  Satur- 
day afternoon  is  usually  assigned  to  the 
former,  on  which  occasions  the  young  men 
are  as  active  and  expert  in  throwing  and 
catching,  or  striking  the  ball,  as  if  they 
had  been  idle  all  the  previous  week  instead 
of  having  had  to  work  in  the  fields  with  the 
utmost  energy.  Sleigh-riding  of  course 
takes  place  in  the  winter  only,  when  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow,  and  then  it  is 
that  the  young  farmers  bring  out  their  best 


88         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

horses,  fill  their  Sleighs  with  lady  friends , 
enveloped  in  gaily  trimmed  furs,  and  to  the 
exhilirating  music  of  the  bells,  start  off  on 
all  sorts  of  expeditions  over  the  neighbor- 
ing country.  From  time  immemorial  it  has 
been  the  custom  among  the  negroes  of  the 
South  to  devote  the  last  week  of  the  year 
commonly  called  Christmas  Holidays  to 
every  variety  of  amusement.  When  slav- 
ery existed,  those  prolonged  festivities 
were  freely  accorded  to  the  slaves,  and  were 
full  of  romantic  interest ;  but  now  that  they 
are  free,  the  colored  people  claim  their  old 
privilege  as  a  right,  but  do  not  find  the 
same  unalloyed  enjoyment  as  of  old  in  their 
annual  frolic.  They  have  not  as  yet  ar- 
rived at  that  stage,  when  they  can  enjoy 
the  blessing  of  supporting  themselves. 
About  the  close  of  the  year  they  have  in 
various  parts  of  the  country  what  they  call 
"Shooting  Matches!''  These  are  of  two 
kinds,  one  where  turkeys  and  other  birds 
are  tied  to  a  stake,  and  made  a  target  for 
men  who  like  to  shoot  the  rifle,  and  exper- 


LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS.    89 

ienced  shots  sometimes  win  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  large  poultry  to  supply  all  their 
friends.  Another  kind  of  match  is,  when 
two  parties  pit  themselves  against  each 
other,  and  go  upon  a  hunt  for  a  day  or  a 
week,  for  squirrels  or  birds  of  game,  when 
the  victors  are  rewarded  with  a  prize  of 
some  kind,  paid  for  by  the  losing  party. 
And  then  they  have  throughout  the  country 
such  rural  jollifications  as  Sheep-Shearing, 
Ploughing  Matches,  and,  to  the  discredit 
of  the  participants,  Cock-Fightings,  which 
need  not  be  described.  But  of  all  rural 
assemblages  none  are  so  generally  popular  as 
Country  Fairs.  They  occur  in  the  Autumn 
in  numerous  localities,  and  bring  together 
thousands  of  the  Agricultural  population. 
The  first  Agricultural  fair  ever  organized 
in  this  country  by  any  of  the  colored  popu- 
lation, was  recently  carried  through  with 
success  in  the  State  of  Kentucky.  Farm 
products,  animals  and  country  fabrics  are 
exhibited  to  a  marvellous  extent,  in  many 
of  these  fairs.  All  sorts  of  friendly  compe- 


90         LIFE  AMONG  FARMERS  AND  PLANTERS. 

titions  are  entered  into,  arid  Horse-racing, 
has  become  an  important  adjunct  to  all  these 
Fairs,  whether  patronized  by  the  State  at 
large,  or  confined  to  the  counties  where  they 
are  held.  But  the  crowning  custom,  and 
the  one  most  universally  recognized  by  the 
American  people,  is,  the  celebration  of  what 
is  known  as  Thanksgiving  Day.  It  is  an 
annual  festival  honored  by  proclamations 
from  the  President,  and  the  local  Governors, 
who  specify  the  particular  day  ;  and  of  all 
places  to  enjoy  it,  none  can  be  compared  to 
the  house  of  a  successful  farmer.  The  prim- 
ary object  of  this  festival  is  to  recognize  the 
goodness  of  the  Almighty  in  crowning  the 
labors  of  the  field  with  prosperity,  and  the 
occasion  is  made  especially  joyous  by  the 
gathering  together,  under  one  roof,  all  the 
scattered  members  of  the  family  in  the  old 
home.  There  are  some  other  rural  customs, 
which  might  be  mentioned  in  this  place,  but 
as  they  are  of  a  religious  character  we  shall 
defer  them  for  a  subsequent  chapter  of  this 
volume.  . 


PART   THIRD 


COMMERCIAL   LIFE   AND   DEVEL- 
OPMENTS. 


THE  inland  and  coast  line  navigation  of 
the  United  States,  is  not  surpassed,  in  ex- 
tent and  character,  by  any  country  on  the 
globe ;  and  the  industry  and  enterprise  of 
the  Americans  in  developing  their  commer- 
cial and  shipping  interests,  has  been,  until 
within  the  last  few  years,  equal  to  their 
superior  advantages.  Passing  by  all  statis- 
tics in  regard  to  the  tonnage  of  the  country, 
let  us  take  a  brief  survey  of  the  vessels 
and  navigators  which  have  given  the  coun- 
try its  reputation.  By  far  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  American  vessels  are  run  upon 
inland  waters,  and  are  called  small  craft, 
but  the  sea-going  vessels,  if  less  numerous, 
are  generally  as  large  as  those  of  any 


94       COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

other  nation,  and  have  been  constructed 
on  unsurpassed  models.  The  ships  called 
"  Liners,"  which,  a  few  years  ago,  ran  be- 
tween New  York  and  Liverpool  acquired 
wide  celebrity,  and  have  never  been  sur- 
passed for  beauty  and  speed.  But  they 
have  been  superceded  by  steamers,  and 
ships  of  that  class  now  transact  the  same 
business.  The  burthen  of  those  sailing- 
vessels  was  about  two  thousand  tons  ;  they 
were  splendidly  equipped,  swift,  were  com- 
manded and  manned  by  the  best  metal,  and 
did  an  immense  business  in  bringing  mer- 
chandize and  immigrants  to  America.  But 
with  the  calamities  that  have  befallen  the 
mercantile  marine  of  this  country,  they  have 
nearly  all  passed  away.  During  the  fiscal 
year  of  1870,  there  were  less  than  one  hun- 
dred thousand  tons  of  sea-going  vessels 
built  in  the  United  States,  and  less  than 
three  hundred  thousand  tons  of  all  descrip- 
tions of  vessels,  which  amount  was  about 
equalled  by  the  vessels  built  on  the  Clyde 
alone,  while  the  tonnage  of  steam  vessels 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.        95 

built  all  in  England,  was  sixty  times  greater 
than  that  of  America.  One  result  of  this 
falling  off  in  American  ship-building  has 
been  that  large  numbers  of  men,  who  were 
brought  up  on  the  ocean,  are  seen  turning 
their  attention  to  a  variety  of  pursuits  con- 
nected wholly  with  the  land.  The  inland 
waters  of  the  country  are  most  abundantly 
supplied  with  steamboats,  and  all  the  varie- 
ties of  the  smaller  sailing  vessels  ;  the  coast- 
ing trade,  and  fishing  interests,  are  quite  as 
important  and  extensive  as  heretofore,  but 
new  vessels  are  by  no  means  now  turned 
out  with  the  rapidit}'  that  they  were  a  few 
years  ago.  It  was  the  late  war,  also,  which 
helped  to  put  back  the  carrying  trade  of 
America,  but  with  the  return  of  peace  and 
the  final  restoration  of  the  Union,  the  old 
order  of  things  began  to  be  restored.  When 
the  Great  Rebellion,  or  rather  the  British 
cruisers,  sailing  under  its  flag,  drove  Ameri- 
can shipping  from  the  seas,  and  thus  trans- 
ferred the  carrying  trade  to  foreign  bottoms, 
the  commerce  of  Philadelphia  suffered  in 


96        COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

common  with  that  of  other  cities.  The 
substitution  of  iron  for  wood,  at  about  the 
same  time,  as  the  material  for  first-class 
steamships,  left  the  country  not  only  with- 
out ships,  but  behind  other  nations  in  facili- 
ties for  making  them.  Boston,  New  York 
and  Baltimore  soon  recovered  in  good  part 
their  former  commerce  through  the  help  of 
foreign  subsidized  steamship  lines.  But 
Philadelphia,  more  thoroughly  imbued  with 
American  ideas,  made  little  effort  to  secure 
such  foreign  lines,  but  waited  to  build  a 
line  of  her  own,  which  will  soon  be  estab- 
lished between  that  city  and  Liverpool. 
In  1860  the  tonnage  of  the  United  States 
amounted  to  5,353,868  tons,  and  in  1870, 
to  4,246,507  tons.  Notwithstanding  the 
above  facts,  however,  the  commerce  of  the 
country  is  very  large  and  flourishing,  since 
it  appears  that  the  American  imports  for 
1870,  amounted  to  about  six  hundred  mil- 
lions of  dollars  and  the  exports  about  four 
hundred  millions.  The  great  variety  of  na- 
tive productions  exported  from  America 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AXD  DEVELOPMENTS.       97 

gives  assurance  of  the  impossibility  of  fail- 
ure in  the  resources  of  the  nation.  For  ex- 
ample, from  the  Sea,  they  have  such  pro- 
ducts as  oil,  whalebone,  spermiciti,  and 
many  kinds,  in  great  abundance,  of  fish ; 
from  the  Forest,  timber,  shingles,  staves, 
lumber,  naval  stores  and  furs ;  from  Agri- 
culture, every  description  of  corn  and  vege- 
table food,  and  the  products  of  animals,  in 
the  way  of  beef,  pork,  tallow,  hides,  bacon, 
cheese,  butter,  wool,  lard  and  hams,  with 
horned  cattle,  horses,  and  other  animals. 
From  the  Southern  States  they  Have  cot- 
ton, tobacco,  rice,  and  sugar ;  from  the  fac- 
tories, every  variety  of  useful  goods  ;  while 
their  exports  of  specie  and  bullion,  have 
never  been  exceeded  by  any  other  nation. 
And  as  to  their  imports,  they  are  simply 
enormous — silks  and  furniture  being  the 
most  important,  and  for  which  there  has 
always  been  a  demand.  But  the  crowning 
element  of  American  Commerce  is  its  inter- 
nal trade ;  and  in  this  connection,  we  can- 
not, perhaps,  mention  a  more  remarkable 


98        COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

fact  than  this,  that  the  production  of  spirit- 
uous liquors  in  1870  amounted  to  $600,- 
000,000, — the  persons  engaged  in  selling  it 
by  retail,  numbering  not  less  than  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand ;  while  the  impor- 
tation of  opium  from  China  amounted  to 
nearly  $9,000,000.  The  distances  in  Amer- 
ica are  so  great  that  the  internal  trade  and 
traffic  of  the  country  has  been,  and  must 
always  be,  a  business  of  vast  importance. 
And  the  extent  of  territory  implies  great 
diversity  of  productions.  The  growths  of 
tropical  regions  are  exchanged  for  the  field 
crops  and  forest  produce  of  cooler  latitudes; 
and  in  another  direction,  the  products  of 
the  coast  and  of  extensive  interior  districts 
are  exchanged.  The  tide  of  emigration  sets 
from  east  to  west,  while  the  tide  of  com- 
merce flows  from  west  to  east ;  and  we  can 
only  obtain  an  adequate  idea  of  the  inland 
commerce  by  considering  the  enormous  ex- 
tent of  the  inland  shipping  and  the  railway 
facilities  of  the  country. 

But  it  is  with  the  social  aspect  of  Amer- 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.        99 

ican  Commerce  that  we  have  to  do  at  the 
present  time.  The  grand  business  centre 
of  the  nation  is  New  York  City.  Having 
direct  and  constant  intercourse  with  all 
parts  of  the  world,  the  nationality  of  its 
merchants  is  as  varied,  as  the  countries 
which  they  represent.  Of  the  native-born 
merchants  the  most  numerous  and  success- 
ful originated  in  the  New  England  States, 
and  are  distinguished  for  their  intelligence, 
ability  and  elevated  personal  characteristics. 
They  live  in  elegant  houses,  and  while  sur- 
rounded by  all  the  appliances  of  prosperity 
and  wealth,  are  not  prone  to  making  a  great- 
er display  than  their  less  fortunate  neigh- 
bors ;  they  are  plain  in  their  manners,  and 
hospitable ;  and  if  many  of  them  happen  to 
indulge  in  keeping  up  fancy  residences  in  the 
country,  the  largest  proportion  are  quite 
content  to  spend  their  summer  vacations, 
by  the  sea-side,  or  among  the  green  hills  of 
their  native  States.  They  devote  them- 
selves to  business  with  ceaseless  activity, 
and  are  the  men  who  generally  take  pleas- 


100     COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

ure  in  expending  their  surplus  capital  upon 
all  sorts  of  benevolent,  religious  and  educa- 
tional institutions.  A  type  of  merchants, 
allied  to  these,  is  also  found  in  all  the  other 
cities  of  the  country.  Next  to  them  come 
the  English,  French  and  German  merchants, 
who  generally  deal  in  the  kind  of  merchan- 
dize sent  out  from  their  several  countries. 
In  their  modes  of  transacting  business,  and 
of  living,  they  adhere  as  closely  as  possible 
to  the  customs  of  their  native  lands,  but 
with  many  modifications.  The  particular 
men  who  laid  the  commercial  foundation  of 
New  York,  were  from  Holland,  but  their 
characteristics  have  been  amalgamated,  with 
those  of  the  various  nationalities  which 
have,  latterly,  made  that  city  the  most  cos- 
mopolitan in  the  country.  While  a  very 
large  trade  is  carried  on  between  New  York 
and  the  Oriental  nations,  the  merchants  of 
Boston  have  long  considered  themselves  the 
special  patrons  and  friends  of  the  far  East, 
and  that  city  has  always  been  a  noted  mart 
for  the  commodities  of  India,  China,  and 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.     101 

Japan,  in  which  particular  it  is  now  finding 
a  rival  in  San  Francisco.  Its  coasting  trade 
is  also  very  extensive,  and  it  is  the  port 
whence  various  manufactures  are  shipped 
in  immense  quantities.  The  whaling  busi- 
ness, which  was  formerly  divided  between 
several  cities,  is  now  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  New  Bedford;  the  merchants  of 
which  city,  like  those  of  Boston,  are  proud 
of  their  descent  from  what  is  called  the  Puri- 
tan stock.  In  Philadelphia,  where  the  coast- 
ing trade  is  almost  unparalleled,  they  have, 
what  is  called  a  Quaker  element  of  popula- 
tion, which  has  always  been  noted  for  its 
integrity  in  matters  of  business — but  this 
city  is  now  vieing  with  New  York  in  the 
cosmopolitan  character  of  its  merchants, — 
and  in  the  person  of  Stephen  Girard  pro- 
duced one  of  the  wealthiest  and  most  emi- 
nent merchants  in  America.  With  regard 
to  Baltimore  and  Charleston,  Mobile,  and 
New  Orleans, — all  these  places  are  the 
natural  outlets  of  the  entire  Southern  half 
of  the  United  States,  and  in  all  of  them 


102     COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

may  be  found  an  abundant  supply  of  mer- 
chants from  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe. 
And  corresponding  with  the  cities  just 
named,  there  are  throughout  the  interior  of 
the  country,  very  many  cities  which  have 
grown  into  centres  of  trade  and  commerce, 
with  marvellous  rapidity ;  among  them  may 
be  mentioned  Chicago,  (whose  merchants, 
are  now  building  up  a  large  tea  trade  with 
China,  by  way  of  San  Francisco,)  Detroit, 
Cleveland,  St.  Louis,  and  Cincinnati,  Louis- 
ville, Buffalo  and  Pittsburg,  in  all  of  which 
may  be  found  the  principal  nationalities  of 
the  globe.  Looking  at  the  commercial 
classes,  in  the  aggregate,  it  is  quite  impos- 
sible to  give  prominence  to  any  nationality  ; 
and  it  would  seem  as  if,  after  a  brief  resi- 
dence in  America,  the  whole  mercantile 
population,  with  one  exception,  becomes 
permeated  with  the  characteristics  of  the 
native-born  inhabitants.  The  exception  al- 
luded to  is  the  Jewish  race.  They  are 
found  in  every  city,  and  almost  in  every 
hamlet, — always  engaged  in  bartering  and 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.     103 

selling,  and  never  in  producing,  and  they 
are  pre-eminently  a  wandering  people.  With 
them,  the  one  great  end  of  life,  would  seem 
to  be,  to  make  money,  but  where  they  set- 
tle down  to  enjoy  it  has  always  been  a 
mystery. 

In  America  as  elsewhere,  permanent  suc- 
cess in  business  is  chiefly  dependent  upon 
character ;  honest  and  upright  men  are  sure 
to  command  the  respect  of  their  neighbors, 
and  when  unfortunate,  always  find  their 
fellow  merchants  ready  to  assist  them  ;  and 
when  men  of  bad  repute  happen  to  make 
fortunes,  they  generally  find  it  convenient 
to  settle  down  among  strangers,  to  enjoy 
their  ill-gotten  gains.  One  of  the  effects  of 
the  late  war  in  this  country,  was  to  enrich 
a  large  number  of  adventurers  and  unscru- 
pulous men  who  made  money  by  imposing 
upon  the  General  Government,  through  po- 
litical intrigues,  and  it  was  because  of  their 
foolishness  in  spending  their  money  and 
putting  on  airs,  to  which  they  were  not  ac- 
customed, that  they  came  to  be  known  by 


104    COMMEECIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

the  opprobrious  title  of  shoddy,  in  remem- 
brance of  a  spurious  cloth  which  some  of 
them  palmed  off  for  the  use  of  the  army. 
But  the  average  American  merchant  of  to- 
day is  a  man  who  deserves  and  receives  uni- 
versal respect.  He  is  intelligent,  but  not 
addicted  to  the  profits  and  pleasures  of  lit- 
erature. Engaged  all  day  in  the  excite- 
ment of  commercial  speculation,  he  has  but 
little  time  to  devote  to  reading,  and  improv- 
ing his  mind.  He  works  so  hard  and  so 
constantly,  that  work  becomes  a  second  na- 
ture to  him,  prostrating  his  energies  and 
making  him  indifferent  to  proper  recrea- 
tions ;  he  considers  his  word  as  good  as  his 
bond,  and,  to  protect  his  credit,  will  make 
the  greatest  sacrifice  of  property ;  he  is 
liberal  in  his  feelings  and  gives  freely  to  all 
objects  which  have  the  sanction  of  his  good 
opinion;  he  is  hospitable,  but  would  prefer 
to  have  his  wife  and  daughters,  attend  to 
the  honors  of  his  house  and  table ;  and  when 
overcome  by  reverses,  he  takes  a  new  start, 
changes  the  character  of  his  business,  per- 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.     105 

haps,  and  will  not  acknowledge  himself  as 
overwhelmed,  and  proves  his  metal  by  at- 
taining final  success.  Perhaps  there  is  no 
feature  in  the  character  of  the  Americans 
which  is  so  remarkable  as  their  spirit  of 
enterprise.  It  is  indeed  wonderful  and  is 
the  cause  of  their  success.  But  it  does  not 
follow  that  this  enterprise  is  all  native  born  ; 
a  portion  of  it  is  undoubtedly  brought  into 
the  country  by  intelligent  men  from  the 
leading  countries  of  Europe. 

But  let  us  now  take  a  glance  at  some  of 
the  phases  of  their  commercial  life,  or  rather 
at  the  classes  of  men  who  transact  the  mer- 
cantile business  of  the  country,  and  first  as 
to  the  shipping  merchants.  To  carry  on 
their  business  a  large  capital  is  required, 
and  as  individuals  or  organized  companies, 
they  are  generally  the  leading  patrons  of 
the  great  ship  yards.  They  have  vessels 
built  to  order,  and  also  buy  them  in  open 
market ;  they  establish  lines  of  communi- 
cation between  home  ports,  by  way  of  lakes 
and  rivers,  and  between  the  United  States 


106     COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

and  foreign  countries ;  and  they  are  the 
men  who  so  frequently  obtain  valuable  con- 
tracts from  the  Government  for  carrying 
the  mails,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Pacific 
Steamship  Company,  which  receives  not 
less  than  five  hundred  thousand  dollars  for 
conveying  a  semi-monthly  mail  from  San 
Francisco  to  China  and  Japan.  One  of  the 
most  famous  of  these  men  is  named  Corne- 
lius Vanderbilt.  Another  class  of  shipping 
merchants  are  those  who  simply  direct  or 
superintend  the  business  for  other  parties. 
They  are  indeed  what  might  be  called,  more 
properly,  Brokers.  The  wealthiest  man 
who  ever  lived  in  the  country,  John  Jacob 
Astor,  and  who  left  about  $25,000,000,  was 
at  one  time  engaged  in  the  shipping  busi- 
ness, and  made  a  great  deal  of  money  by 
sending  his  ships  to  China,  but  he  was  pre- 
eminently a  trader  in  furs.  Ihen  come  the 
Importing  Merchants.  They  have  their 
agents  located  in  foreign  countries,  purchase 
and  sell  their  merchandize  only  in  the  bulk, 
and  are  the  men  who  give  the  greatest  im- 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.     107 

petus  to  the  home  trade.  Some  merchants 
of  this  class,  engaged  in  trade  with  the  Ori- 
ental nations,  have  followed  the  same  busi- 
ness for  nearly  a  century ;  many  of  them 
located  in  New  York  and  Boston,  have  ac- 
quired immense  fortunes,  and  it  was  the 
son  of  one  of  these,  James  Lenox,  who  lately 
made  a  donation  of  a  million  of  dollars  for 
the  establishment  of  a  Library  and  Gallery 
of  Art  in  New  York.  With  some  few  of 
these  importers  the  custom  prevails  of  sel- 
ling their  goods  by  auction,  soon  after  their 
arrival,  and  in  this  manner  whole  cargoes 
of  tea  from  China  or  sugar  from  the  West 
Indies  were  sold  within  the  space  of  half 
an  hour.  But  this  business  has  well  nigh 
been  absorbed  by  the  class  known  as  Bro- 
kers. Another  important  class  of  merchants 
are  the  wholesale  dealers  or  Jobbers.  They 
receive  their  goods  in  the  bulk  from  the 
importers  and  sell  them  by  the  piece  or  in 
broken  packages.  They  sell  on  credit  and 
usually  confine  themselves  to  a  particular 
class,  or  a  few  classes  of  goods.  One  house, 


108     COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

for  example,  will  sell  only  silk  goods, 
another,  all  sorts  of  cotton  fabrics,  another 
the  several  varieties  of  woolen  goods, 
another  hardware,  and  others  wooden  or 
fancy  goods  and  groceries  of  every  descrip- 
tion. And  then  there  are  what  are  called 
the  Retail  merchants.  They  constitute  the 
most  numerous  class,  and  are  to  be  found 
in  every  city  and  village  of  the  land.  In 
the  larger  towns  there  is  no  mingling  of 
dry  goods  and  groceries,  but  in  the  hamlets, 
the  merchants  find  it  necessary  and  to  their 
advantage,  to  keep  for  sale  everything  that 
the  people  can  possibly  require — from  a 
yard  of  callico  or  a  piece  of  ribbon,  a  paper 
of  buttons  or  needles,  to  a  pound  of  tea  or 
coffee  or  sugar  or  shot,  or  a  cake  of  son  p. 
It  is  sometimes  the  case,  however,  that  the 
importing,  jobbing  and  retail  trades  are 
carried  on  by  the  same  firm,  and  there  is 
one  man  located  in  New  York  City,  Alex- 
ander T.  Stewart,  who  is  reputed  to  be  the 
wealthiest  and  most  influential  merchant  of 
this  sort,  in  the  world.  His  establishments 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.     1C9 

are  on  the  most  stupendous  scale ;  he  em- 
ploys agents  and  clerks  by  the  hundred  ; 
and  his  passion  for  business  is  so  strong 
that  he  is  among  the  first,  as  well  as  the 
last,  in  his  daily  attendance  at  his  enor- 
mous warehouses.  This  man  began  his 
career  a  poor  and  friendless  boy,  and  besides 
building  a  palace  for  himself,  giving  away 
millions  for  the  comfort  of  the  poor,  he  is 
now  engaged,  at  an  immense  outlay,  in 
founding  a  model  town  in  the  vicinity  of 
New  York.  The  Commission  Merchants 
form  another  very  extensive  class  of  the 
business  men.  To  carry  on  their  business, 
less  capital  is  required  than  for  those  already 
named,  but  it  is  important  that  their  credit 
should  be  unimpeachable.  They  receive 
goods  or  produce,  from  the  manufacturers 
or  farmers,  and  sell  them  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, receiving  for  themselves  merely  a 
certain  per  cent,  on  the  amount  of  sales,  in 
the  way  of  commission,  for  trouble  and  ex- 
penses. With  regard  to  the  subordinates, 
who  are  employed  by  the  more  important 


110     COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

\ 

merchants,  they  consist  of  Drummers,  who 
devote  their  time  to  hunting  up  customers ; 
of  Clerks  who  sell  goods  and  keep  the  books  ; 
of  Porters,  who  pack  the  goods  and  do  the 
manual  labor  ;  and  of  Draymen,  who  carry 
the  merchandize  to  the  vessels,  of  every 
description,  and  to  the  railway  stations. 
But  there  are  certain  other  classes  of  busi- 
ness men  in  all  the  commercial  marts,  whose 
duties  are  important  and  whose  influence  is 
extensive.  First  among  these  are  the  auc- 
tioneers, who  sell  to  the  highest  bidders, 
real  estate,  furniture,  books,  works  of  art, 
and  everything  in  fact,  which  the  owners 
desire  to  turn  rapidly  into  money ;  then 
come  the  Brokers,  who  usually  devote  them- 
selves to  one  commodity,  such  as  cotton  or 
money,  tea  and  coffee,  sugar  or  grain,  who 
have  come  to  be  a  numerous  and  useful 
class,  and  who  sell  only  by  samples,  receiv- 
ing their  pay  like  the  commission  merchants. 
They  transact  the  business  which  was  for- 
merly performed  by  one  class  of  auctioneers. 
The  class  of  men  known  as  Bankers  are 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.     Ill 

those  who  conduct  the  moneyed  institutions 
of  the    country,  albeit  large  numbers  fol- 
low the  business  on  private  account,  many 
of  whom,  in  all  the  leading  cities,  have  ac- 
quired immense    fortunes.     Of  these,   per- 
haps the  most  successful  and  celebrated  is 
now  a  retired  citizen  of  Washington,    and 
who,  within  the  last  few  years  has  given 
away,  for  purposes   of  charity  and  culture 
many  millions  of  dollars.     And  still  another 
class  of  the  business  men  who  are  very  nu- 
merous and  constantly  increasing,  are  known 
as  Insurance  men.     They  are  the  managers 
of  extensive   corporations,    who  insure  in 
stated  sums  of  money,  all  kinds  of  property 
from  fire  and  marine  disasters,  as  well  as  the 
lives  of  men,  who  desire  to  secure  a  compe- 
tence for  their  families  in  the  event  of  death. 
From  the  foregoing  statements  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  machinery   of   commerce  in  this 
country  is  fully  organized  and  very  complete. 
But,  fully  to  comprehend  the  extent  and 
range  of  the  commercial  interests,  we  must 
now  turn  our  attention  to  the   System  of 


112     COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

Railways  as  it  exists  in  the  United  States. 
This  is  a  subject  which  increases  in  inter- 
est and  importance  every  year.  In  1860 
this  system  had  already  reached  a  develop- 
ment which  was  justly  regarded  as  amazing. 
It  was  the  product  of  but  a  short  time ; 
every  mile  of  road  had  been  built  within 
the  recollection  of  men  who  had  not  yet 
passed  middle  life,  and  three-fourths  of  it 
all  within  ten  years.  Yet  there  were  in 
operation  more  than  thirty-one  thousand 
miles  of  road,  which,  with  their  equipment, 
had  absorbed  of  the  capital  of  the  country 
not  less  than  twelve  hundred  and  fifty  mil- 
lions of  dollars,  or  ten  per  cent,  of  the  en- 
tire assessed  value  of  property  in  the  United 
States.  There  were  men,  however,  who 
protested  that  this  interest  had  outgrown 
the  needs  of  the  country,  and  was  the  result 
of  speculative  and  artificial  influences;  that 
it  diverted  capital  from  more  useful  em- 
ployments and  tended  to  retard  the  pros- 
perity of  the  country.  Nor  have  these  men 
changed  their  opinion.  But  what  a  change 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.     113 

has  taken  place  in  this  business?  From 
the  official  reports  we  learn  that  at  the 
commencement  of  the  present  year  there 
were  railroad  lines  in  operation  to  the  ex- 
tent of  more  than  fifty-three  thousand  miles 
which,  with  their  equipment,  cost  nearly 
twenty-seven  hundred  millions  of  dollars,  or 
twenty-two  per  cent,  of  the  entire  assessed 
value  of  property  in  the  country.  Of  these 
more  than  eleven  thousand  miles  have  been 
built  within  two  years,  and  at  an  expendi- 
ture of  four  hundred  millions  of  dollars.  In 
other  words,  the  people  of  America  have 
contributed  during  the  last  ten  years  more 
than  half  as  much  to  build  railroads  as  they 
have  paid  in  taxes  for  the  support  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, including  the  conduct  of  the  war, 
and  are  now  contributing  yearly  for  the  same 
purpose  two-thirds  as  much  as  the  whole 
revenue  of  the  national  treasury.  The  to- 
tal earnings  of  these  railroads  in  1870  were 
four  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  dollars ; 
and  the  gross  tonnage  transported  equalled 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  millions  of 


114     COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

tons,  having  a  value  of  more  than  ten  thou- 
sand millions  of  dollars. 

Prior  to  the  late  war,  the  American  rail- 
roads were  regarded  almost  exclusively  in 
their  relations  to  trade,  and  the  comprehen- 
sive study  of  them  was  the  concern  only  of 
the  economist.  But  they  have  now  become 
the  centres  of  many  forms  of  power  in  the 
hands  of  corporations  whose  management  is 
concentrated,  secret,  and  largely  irresponsi- 
ble ;  they  hold  vast  accumulations  of  wealth ; 
employ  a  large  proportion  of  the  scientific 
and  practical  ability  of  the  nation;  they 
exert  an  immense  influence  on  all  the  mar- 
kets, and  on  the  social  and  material  welfare 
of  the  whole  people.  They  are  also  the 
favorite  instruments  of  speculation,  and 
sources  of  sudden  profit;  they  wield  politi- 
cal agencies  and  parties,  in  many  places, 
and  even  dictate  to  the  State  Legislatures. 
They  thus  connect  themselves  with  society, 
in  so  many  relations,  that  their  growth  and 
influence  are  becoming  an  anxious  study, 
not  only  for  the  economist  and  the  trader,  but 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.     115 

for  the  politician,  the  statesman,  and  the 
moralist.  Hitherto,  a  large  part  of  the 
capital  thus  consumed  has  been  borrowed 
from  foreign  nations,  and  the  want  is  not 
felt  in  the  United  States.  But  it  makes 
part  of  the  debt  on  which  the  productive 
industry  of  the  country  must  pay  the  inter- 
est. The  subject,  as  it  has  been  well  said, 
thus  presents  important  and  difficult  ques- 
tions for  discussion.  But  all  men  must  ac- 
knowledge that  the  rapid  progress  of  this 
enormous  interest  is  as  wonderful  as  its 
present  magnitude ;  and  it  is  plain  that  the 
ultimate  extent  to  which  the  construction 
of  railroads  in  America  will  be  carried,  no 
estimate  can  be  formed. 

Before  leaving  this  subject  we  must  sub- 
mit a  few  additional  particulars.  The  av- 
erage rate  of  speed,  with  the  passenger  trains 
in  America,  is  thirty  miles  per  hour,  and 
the  number  of  cars  in  each  train,  varies 
from  five  to  fifteen ;  while  the  freight  trains, 
frequently  number  not  less  than  one  hun- 
dred cars.  The  locomotives  are  far  more 


116     COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

powerful,  and  much  larger  than  those  on 
English  roads,  and  wood  is  the  common  fuel. 
In  front  of  the  engine  is  generally  placed  a 
massive  iron  grating  called  a  "  cow  catcher" 
intended  to  throw  off  any  animal  that  may 
be  upon  the  track ;  and  in  winter  they  are 
supplied  with  immense  plows  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cutting  through  the  banks  of  snow. 
They  are  supplied  with  bells  as  well  as 
steam  whistles,  to  be  sounded  when  start- 
ing, or  used  to  give  note  of  coming  danger. 
They  are  generally  managed  by  three  men, 
one  engineer  and  his  assistant,  and  one  fire- 
man. The  passenger  cars  are  large  and 
have  from  eight  to  sixteen  wheels ; — some 
of  them  plain  and  open  to  all,  and  others 
called  Palace  Cars,  are  very  elegantly  fitted 
up,  and  occupied  only  by  those  persons  who 
are  willing  to  pay  an  extra  fare.  On  all  the 
trains,  are  also  to  be  found  such  conveniences 
as  "  Sleeping"  and  "  Smoking  Cars."  The 
men  who  manage  the  trains  while  running, 
are  the  "  Conductors,"  who  collect  the  tick- 
ets ;  at  the  end  of  each  car  is  stationed  a 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.     117 

brakeman,  who  helps  to  regulate  the  speed  ; 
there  are  also  baggage  men ;  while  boys 
with  books  or  papers  or  fruit  are  permitted 
to  pass  through  the  trains;  and  upon  those 
which  carry  the  United  States  mail,  there  is 
always  an  officer  of  the  General  Post  Office 
Department.  Tickets  are  purchased  before 
entering  the  cars,  and  for  every  piece  of 
baggage  a  metal  check  is  given,  so  that  a 
man  may  travel  a  thousand  miles  or  more 
without  casting  a  thought  upon  his  baggage. 
The  rails  are  made  of  iron  and  steel  and 
single  or  double  tracks  are  in  vogue  accord- 
ing to  the  necessities  of  the  route  ;  and  the 
longest  continuous  line  of  railway  in  Amer- 
ica, running  from  New  York  City  to  San 
Francisco,  is  three  thousand  and  two  hun- 
dred miles. 

As  the  primary  object  of  commerce  is  to 
accumulate  money,  it  is  proper  that  we 
should  conclude  this  paper  with  a  general 
Survey  of  the  Finances  of  the  United  States, 
and  of  the  people  to  whom  their  management 
is  intrusted.  At  the  close  of  the  last  fiscal 


118     COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

year  the  debt  of  the  United  States  amounted 
to  $2,480,672,427;  the  reduction,  since 
1866,  when  it  reached  the  highest  amount, 
having  been  $292,563,746.  The  total  Re- 
ceipts of  the  Government  were  $566,935,- 
818,  while  the  expenditures  amounted  to 
$417,433,346,  leaving  a  balance  in  the 
Treasury  of  $149,502,471.  The  money 
spent  for  the  civil  service  was  $19,031.283  ; 
Foreign  Intercourse,  $1,490,776  ;  Military 
Establishment,  $57,655,675;  Naval  Estab- 
lishment, $21,780,229;  collecting  Customs 
Revenue,  $6,237,137  ;  assessing  and  col- 
lecting Internal  Revenue,  $7,234,531 ; 
Light  House  Establishment,  $2,588,300; 
Mint  Establishment,  $1,067,097;  Indians, 
$3,407,938 ;  and  Pensions,  $28,340,202  ; 
while  the  balance  was  devoted  to  miscella- 
neous expenditures.  Turning  from  the 
operations  of  the  National  Treasury  to  the 
Banking  Institutions,  we  find  the  following 
information  :  The  National  Banks,  which 
are  conducted  by  private  enterprise  but 
made  perfectly  secure  by  the  General  Gov- 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.     119 

eminent,  number  1627,  and  have  a  capital 
of  $436,478,311;  the  Chartered  Banks, 
which  are  disconnected  from  the  Govern- 
ment, number  1882,  and  have  a  capital  of 
$503,578,000 ;  the  Private  Bankers  repre- 
sent about  $400,000,000  of  capital;  and 
the  Savings  Banks  are  estimated  to  hold 
about  $195,000,000.  The  system  upon 
which  all  these  institutions  is  managed,  is 
quite  uniform — each  one  having  a  President 
and  Cashier,  a  Board  of  Directors,  and  as 
many  Clerks  as  may  be  required.  Taken 
in  the  aggregate,  the  bankers  of  America 
are  as  upright  and  intelligent  as  any  in  ex- 
istence, but  no  class,  from  Presidents  down 
to  common  Clerks,  are  so  liable  to  go  astray, 
and  therefore  it  is  that  the  papers  have  oc- 
casionally to  chronicle  acts  of  dishonesty 
among  banking  men.  On  the  score  of  suc- 
cess, it  is  also  worth  mentioning  that  the 
Private  Bankers  have  at  all  times  led  the 
way  in  the  more  important  financial  nego- 
tiations between  the  United  States  and 
foreign  countries  ;  and  the  late  Rebellion, 


120     COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

as  well  as  the  preceding  War  with  Mexico 
were  both  greatly  indebted  to  the  skill  of 
two  men,   whose  names  as  bankers  have 
passed  into  history,  viz  :  William  W.  Cor- 
coran   and    Jay    Cooke.      Of  the    various 
financial  institutions,  perhaps  the  most  use- 
ful and  truly  American  in  its  character  is 
that  known   as  the  Savings   Bank,   the  pri- 
mary object  of  which  is  to  keep  in  safety 
the  savings  of  the  poorer  classes,  for  the 
use  of  which  the  bank  pays  a  regular  inter- 
est.    Other  banks   make  it  their  business 
to  lend  money  for  commercial  purposes,  but 
not  so  with  the  Savings  Banks,  which  have 
more  to  do  with  real  estate  in  making  use 
of  their  funds.     With  regard  to  the  circu- 
lating medium  of  the   United   States,   we 
may  remark  that   it  is  divided  into  paper 
money  and  specie.     The  former,  which  is 
also  called  currency  is   all  issued  directly 
from   the  National  Treasury,  in  denomina- 
tions  ranging  from  ten  cents  to  one  thou- 
sand dollars,  and  is  a  legal  tender  through- 
out the  length   and  breadth   of  the  land  ; 


Wf, 


COMMERCIAL  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS.     121 

while  all  the  issues  under  one  dollar  are 
called  fractional  currency.  The  specie  of 
the  country  is  coined  at  a  national  mint, 
located  in  Philadelphia,  and  of  course  under 
the  direction  of  the  Treasury,  and  is  com- 
posed of  copper,  silver  and  gold ;  the  copper, 
forming  one  and  two  cent  pieces ;  the  sil- 
ver, five,  ten,  twenty-five  and  fifty  cent 
pieces ;  and  the  gold,  one,  three,  five,  ten, 
twenty,  and  fifty  dollar  pieces ;  to  all  of 
which  may  be  added,  what  is  called  gold 
and  silver  bullion.  While  it  is  true  that  in 
all  parts  of  the  world  money  is  considered 
a  great  power,  there  is  probably  no  country 
where  the  people  are  so  universally  imbued 
with  the  love  of  gain,  or  place  so  high  an 
estimate  on  the  possession  of  wealth,  as  is 
the  case  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


ERRATA,  &c. 


Page  15,  line  11.— For  ruler  read  governor. 

'*    16,  lines  1  aud  2.— These   expenses  are  incurred  in   part  by  the 

Government  and  the  People. 
Page  28.  line  3.— For  directly  read  indirectly. 
"    51.  line  7. — Add  after  foreigner — as  well  as  a  native. 
"    62,  line  10  —For  equnl  fa  read  greater  than. 
"    64,  liue  5.— After  offspring  add— except,  that  the  wife  has  a  life 

interest  of  one-third  called  the  widow's  dower. 

Page  73,  line  14.— After  farms  add— There  is  an  extensive,  emigration 
from  China  to   this  country  now  going  on,  aud 
whxt  effect  if  will  have  on  the  agricultural  and  in- 
dustrial interests  is  a  problem  which  can  only  be 
settled  by  the  future. 
Page  95.  line  1  —For  all  in  read  in  all. 
"    97,  Hue  ID. — For  and  Furniture  read  Woollen-goods — Tea,  Coffee, 

and  Sugars. 

Page  106,  line  14.— Since  thi?  M-as  printed  it  has  been  stated  that  W.  B. 
Astor.  A.  T.  Stewart  and  Cornelius  Tanderbilt  are 
each  worth  about  sixty  millions  of  dollars. 
Page  118,  line  8. — The  last  figure  1  should  be  2. 
«    120.  line  20.— For  directly  read  indirectly. 
"    120.— Strike  out  l**t  two  lines  after  and,  and  add  $356,000,000 

being  a  legal  tender. 

Page  121.— It  should  be  stated  in  this  paragraph  that  there  are  Branch 
Mints  in  operation  in  San  Francisco,  Denver,  Char- 
lotte, Carson  City,  and  an  Assay  Office  in  New 
York:  and  also  that  nickel  is  used  in  some  of  the 
smaller  coins. 


PART    FOURTH 


LIFE  AMONG  THE  MECHANICS. 


IN  no  way,  perhaps,  can  the  magnitude 
of  the  Mechanical  and  Artisan  interests  of 
America  be  better  realized,  than  by  walk- 
ing through  the  spacious  apartments  of  the 
Patent  Office  in  Washington,  where  are  to 
be  found  over  one  hundred  thousand  models 
of  American  skill  and  enterprise.  Of  these, 
about  five  thousand  have  been  deposited 
within  the  last  three  years.  It  might  also 
be  mentioned  that  the  cost  of  supporting 
the  Patent  Office  and  publishing  its  records, 
down  to  the  present  time,  has  been  twelve 
millions  of  dollars ;  that  fifty  thousand  ap- 
plications for  patents  have  been  rejected ; 
and  that  no  inventions,  which  are  inopera- 
tive, frivolous  or  mischievous  can  ever  be 
protected  by  the  Government. 

Sixty  years  ago,  the  manufactures  of  the 


126  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MECHANICS. 

country  were  valued  at  $200,000,000 ;  to- 
day, they  are  estimated  at  $3,000,000,000; 
while  the  people  who  are  engaged  in  this 
enormous  business  are  also  counted  by  mil- 
lions. Their  character  is  varied  and  inter- 
esting. All  labor  is  respected,  but  this  is 
especially  true  of  skilled  labor.  The  Amer- 
ican mechanics  are  partial  to  the  higher 
grades  of  work,  and  this  has  a  tendency  to 
elevate  them  in  society.  They  are  ambi- 
tious to  succeed,  but  often  fail,  because  of 
their  attempting  too  much.  As  employ- 
ers, they  are  faithful  and  punctual,  and 
they  who  work  as  subordinates  seldom 
have  cause  to  complain.  As  fellow-labor- 
ers, they  are  not  always  considerate,  but 
offences  in  that  direction  grow. out  of  in- 
dividual dispositions.  Their  minds  are  not 
given  to  abstract  thought,  but  they  are 
fond  of  industrial  organizations.  In  deal- 
ing with  men  and  things,  and  in  surmount- 
ing obstacles,  they  are  wonderfully  ingeni- 
ous ;  and  perhaps  their  chief  intellectual 
distinction  is  that  of  inventors.  To  use  the 


LIFE    AMONG   THE   MECHANICS.  127 

language  of  another,  their  moral  qualities 
are  not  striking  but  generally  sound.  They 
are  a  good-natured  people,  and  treat  stran- 
gers with  kindness.  Fairness  and  honesty 
prevail  among  them.  Discipline  is  weak. 
They  respect  their  institutions  and  deserve 
to  be  called  a  law-abiding  people.  Their 
homes  « re  generally  well-ordered,  and  their 
domestic  virtues  are  above  the  average 
among  European  nations.  They  are  fond 
of  amusements,  but  perhaps  too  willing  to 
break  through  the  rules  oi  a  wise  restraint. 
Different  sections  and  pursuits,  however, 
bring  about  different  results;  and  what  is 
true  of  one  neighborhood  is  not  always  true 
of  another,  and  of  course  the  inhabitants  of 
the  newly  settled  regions,  are  not  generally 
as  far  advanced  in  culture  as  those  located 
in  the  older  cities  and  towns.  A  single 
brick  or  block  of  stone  may  give  us  a  faint 
idea  of  the  house  to  be  built  of  that  mate- 
rial, and  in  like  manner,  we  may  partially 
become  acquainted  with  the  manufacturing 
population,  by  considering  a  few  of  its  lead- 


128  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MECHANICS. 

ing  classes,  who  come  under  the  head  of 
mechanics  or  artisans. 

And,  first,  as  to  the  very  extensive  num- 
ber of  persons  engaged  in  the  production  of 
flour  and  meal, — the  millers  of  the  country. 
They  are  to  be  found  in  every  part,  and 
the  business  of  transforming  the  various 
cereals  into  flour  is  carried  on  by  steam 
mills,  as  well  as  those  propelled  by  water 
and  wind  power.  The  mills  which  are  run 
by  water  power  are  the  most  numerous,  and 
it  is  only  in  a  few  level  districts  that  the 
old-fashioned  wind-mill  is  in  vogue.  Many 
of  the  mills  in  question  are  of  limited  capac- 
ity, and  only  intended  to  grind  the  grain 
which  is  sent  to  them  from  the  immediate 
vicinity ;  but  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try are  located  very  extensive  establish- 
ments which  send  their  brands  of  flour  to 
various  quarters  of  the  globe.  In  these 
larger  mills,  which  run  both  day  and  night, 
and  employ  two  sets  of  hands,  they  grind 
and  turn  out  from  three  hundred  to  one 
thousand  barrels  of  flour  in  each  twenty- 


LIFE   AMONG   THE   MECHANICS.  129 

four  hours.  Wheat  is  always  a  cash  article, 
and  to  carry  on  the  business,  a  large  capital 
is  required.  Besides  the  regular  millers 
and  their  immediate  assistants,  these  estab- 
lishments give  employment  to  large  num- 
bers of  coopers,  who  manufacture  the  bar- 
rels that  are  used;  but  within  the  past 
year,  complaints  have  been  made  against 
these  millers,  that  they  were  in  the  habit 
of  using  old  barrels,  which  had  been  used 
for  other  purposes.  This  kind  of  dishones- 
ty, however,  is  not  common,  and  will  un- 
doubtedly be  remedied.  The  weight  of  a 
barrel  of  flour  is  always  one  hundred  and 
ninety-six  pounds,  and  it  is  universally  in- 
spected by  a  public  officer  before  shipment 
from  the  place  of  its  manufacture ;  so  that 
the  several  classes  through  whose  hands 
each  barrel  of  flour  is  obliged  to  pass,  are 
the  proprietors,  the  millers  and  their  assist- 
ants, the  coopers,  the  inspectors,  and  fin-il- 
ly  the  book-keeping  and  shipping  clerks. 
In  the  larger  mills,  moreover,  regular  mill- 
wrights are  also  permanently  employed. 


130  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MECHANICS. 

Excepting  agriculture,  there  is  no  branch 
of  American  industry  which  gives  employ- 
ment to  so  many  people  as  that  of  boot  and 
shoe  manufacturing.  The  New  England 
States  take  the  lead  in  this  business,  and 
Massachusetts  is  in  advance  of  all  the  other 
individual  States,  the  largest  single  estab- 
lishment in  that  State,  giving  employment 
to  fourteen  hundred  persons,  and  paying 
out,  in  the  way  of  wages,  nearly  one  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars  per  annum.  And  it 
is  reported  of  one  town,  that  it  turned  out 
in  one  year,  boots  and  shoes  enough  to 
amount  to  five  millions  of  dollars.  The 
States  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
come  next  to  New  England,  and  it  is  esti- 
mated that  the  product  of  the  whole  United 
States  is  very  much  more  than  one  hundred 
millions  of  dollars  per  annum;  while  the 
raw  material  in  the  way  of  leather,  has 
reached  a  similar  amount.  The  finer  qual- 
ities of  boots  and  shoes  are  usually  made 
in  the  cities,  and  chiefly  by  Germans,  and 
the  more  ordinary  varieties  in  the  country 


LIFE   AMONG   THE   MECHANICS.  131 

towns  and  villages.  In  some  of  these,  al- 
most every  house  has  attached  to  it  a  shop 
for  making  shoes,  and  all  the  members  of 
the  family,  when  not  engaged  in  household 
affairs,  or  in  cultivating  a  garden,  take  part 
in  the  manufacture.  Within  the  last  year, 
quite  a  colony  of  Chinese  shoemakers  have 
found  employment  in  New  England,  and 
every  inducement  is  given  to  encourage 
their  coming  in  greater  numbers.  Where 
the  sewing  machine  is  employed,  large  num- 
bers of  shoes  are  turned  out  by  some  fami- 
lies, which  are  paid  for  on  being  delivered 
to  the  local  dealers,  who  ship  thetn  to  the 
wholesale  merchants  in  the  cities.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  shoes  made,  are  fastened 
on  the  bottom  by  wooden  pegs,  thereby 
creating  peg  factories,  in  many  of  which 
shoe  lasts  are  made,  the  combined  business 
amounting  to  many  hundred  thousand  dol- 
lars. About  one-third  of  the  people  en- 
gaged in  making  shoes  are  women,  and  it 
is  said  that  the  aggregage  amount  now  paid 
to  the  shoemakers  as  wages  is  not  far  from 


132  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MECHANICS. 

fifty  millions  of  dollars.  With  regard  to 
the  leather  used  in  this  enormous  business, 
it  is  chiefly  manufactured  in  the  country, 
and  its  annual  production  reaches  very 
nearly  one  hundred  millions  of  dollars. 

The  manufacture  of  Clothing  for  men, 
hoys,  women  and  children,  has  become  a 
business  of  late  years,  of  great  magnitude. 
It  is  confined  chiefly  to  the  large  cities,  and 
gives  direct  employment  to  nearly  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  hands,  the  largest 
proportion  of  whom  are  women.  Accord- 
ing to  the  latest  published  returns  of  the 
Census  Office,  they  received  in  one  year 
nearly  twenty  millions  of  dollars  in  wages, 
and  produced  merchandize  which  sold  for 
about  ninety  millions  of  dollars.  The  gen- 
eral distribution  of  wealth  in  America  ena- 
bles the  people  of  all  classes  to  be  comfor- 
tably and  respectably  attired,  and  it  is  sel- 
dom that  one  class  is  compelled  to  wear  the 
cast-off  clothing  of  another  class.  Out  of 
this  fact  has  grown  the  vast  demand  for 
ready-made  clothing  of  moderate  cost,  which 


LIFE   AMONG   THE  MECHANICS.  133 

has  developed  into  an  immense  and  grow- 
ing trade,  giving  employment  to  multitudes 
of  women  in  the  larger  cities,  who  would 
otherwise  find  it  difficult  to  support  them- 
selves in  comfort.  The  cutters  of  common 
clothing  are  principally  Americans,  while 
the  Germans  and  Irish  are  chiefly  employed 
in  the  other  branches  of  the  business.  The 
wages,  both  for  men  and  women  are  larger 
than  those  paid  in  Europe.  The  American 
women  are  noted  for  their  fondness  for 
dress,  and  carry  the  custom  of  clothing 
their  children  to  a  preposterous  extent ; 
and  hence  the  demand  for  fancy  articles  of 
dress  is  probably  greater  than  in  any  other 
civilized  country  on  the  globe.  And  while 
that  wonderful  invention  called  the  Sewing 
Machine  has  not  only  greatly  increased  the 
means  of  producing,  it  has  at  the  same  time 
created  an  increased  demand  for  every  vari- 
ety of  clothing. 

Of  the  class  of  artisans  who  are  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  machines,  the  num- 
ber is  not  far  from  fifty  thousand.  The 


134  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MECHANICS. 

machines  made  by  them  are  well-nigh  count- 
less in  numbers  and  variety,  ranging  from 
Steam  Engines  and  Locomotives  down  to 
Printing  Presses  and  Sewing  Machines. 
There  is  no  country  in  the  world  where 
hydraulic  machinery  or  water  mills  are  so 
abundant  as  in  America,  and  its  water 
power  is  practically  unlimited.  Taken  as 
a  whole,  the  machinists  of  the  country  are 
noted  for  their  superior  intelligence,  and 
turn  their  attention  more  to  what  is  useful 
than  to  what  is  ornamental.  Among  the 
articles  which  they  produce  of  special  im- 
portance may  be  mentioned  clocks  and 
watches,  fire  arms,  cabinet  furniture,  cut- 
lery, and  all  sorts  of  implements  and  tools, 
musical  instruments,  including  organs  and 
piano  fortes,  carriages,  soap  and  candles, 
bricks,  tobacco  in  all  shapes,  with  articles 
of  unnumbered  varieties  made  of  iron,  cop- 
per, brass,  glass  and  wood.  Within  the 
bounds  of  the  Republic  may  be  found  the 
raw  material  for  almost  every  branch  of 
manufacturing  industry.  The  intellectual 


LIFE    AMONG   THE   MECHANICS.  135 

power  and  skill  of  the  American  mechanic 
may  be  partly  appreciated  by  the  fact  that 
the  manufactories  of  the  country  when  last 
officially  published,  numbered  one  hundred 
and  forty-one  thousand,  besides  the  machine 
shops  of  great  value  and  capacity,  yielding 
products  to  the  value  of  two  thousand  mil- 
lions of  dollars.  These  immense  results, 
which  include  the  products  of  the  cotton 
and  wool  manufactories,  whilst  measurably 
affected  by  the  wealth  of  the  soil,  and  its 
successful  cultivation,  are  yet  traceable  to 
the  artisan  skill,  energies  and  industry  of 
the  American  people.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  manufacturing  and  mechanical  capacities 
of  the  Northern  States  of  America  were  the 
primary  cause  of  their  success  in  the  late 
Rebellion,  and  that  a  more  striking  illustra- 
tion of  the  power  and  value  of  such  resour- 
ces is  not  to  be  found  in  history.  In  look- 
ing over  the  official  lists,  we  find  that  the 
mechanics  and  artisans  of  the  United  States 
might  be  arranged  in  classes  which  number 
about  one  hundred,  and  of  course  in  a  paper 


136  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MECHANICS. 

like  the  present,  it  is  impossible  to  describe 
them  with  minuteness. 

But  let  us  now  take  a  glance  at  the  sub- 
ject of  compensation.  Common  laborers  in 
America  earn  from  one  to  two  dollars  per 
day,  without  board.  The  wages  for  skilled 
labor  are  considerably  higher,  but  they  can- 
not be  precisely  specified,  because  the  work- 
men make  their  own  contracts  with  their 
employers,  the  prices  being  regulated  by 
ability,  the  season,  and  the  nature  of  the 
business.  By  way  of  illustration  however, 
we  append  the  following  selection,  as  about 
the  rate  of  full  monthly  wages  in  vogue  at 
the  present  time,  viz  :  Bakers,  fourteen  dol- 
lars ;  blacksmiths,  ninety  dollars ;  Brick- 
layers, one  hundred  and  twelve  dollars ; 
book-binders,  eighteen  dollars;  butchers, 
twenty  dollars ;  cabinet  makers,  ninety  dol- 
lars ;  carpenters,  one  hundred  and  twelve 
dollars  ;  cigar  makers,  sixty  dollars ;  con- 
fectioners, forty  dollars ;  coopers,  one  hun- 
dred dollars  ;  engineers,  ninety-two  dollars  ; 
machinists,  ninety-two  dollars  ;  masons,  one 


LIFE   AMONG  THE   MECHANICS.  137 

hundred  and  twelve  dollars  ;  millers,  ninety- 
two  dollars;  painters,  sixty  dollars;  print- 
ers, ninety-two  dollars ;  harness  and  sad- 
dle makers,  sixty  dollars ;  shoemakers, 
sixty  dollars ;  tailors,  eighty  dollars ;  stone 
cutters,  one  hundred  and  twelve  dollars ; 
watchmakers,  eighty  dollars;  wheelwrights, 
eighty-four  dollars ;  wagon  makers,  ninety- 
two  dollars  ;  spinners  and  weavers,  forty- 
eight  dollars;  and  wood  carvers,  eighty 
dollars.  The  above  are  only  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  trades  followed  in  America, 
but  they  are  among  the  most  important. 
Generally  speaking  the  lowest  wages  are 
paid  in  the  cities  along  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board, and  they  increase  as  the  immigrant 
passes  westward,  reaching  their  highest 
point  on  the  Pacific. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  some  of  the 
incidental  circumstances  connected  with  that 
portion  of  the  laboring  population  devoted 
to  mechanical  employments.  The  hours  for 
beginning  and  ending  a  day's  work,  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  seasons  of  the  year.  Hith- 


138  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MECHANICS. 

erto,  it  has  been  customary  to  labor  ten 
hours,  but  this  has  generally  been  regulated 
by  agreements  between  the  employer  and 
his  hired  men.  Within  the  last  two  years, 
however,  this  business  has  been  mixed  up 
with  politics,  and  Congress  has  been  induced 
to  pass  a  law  limiting  a  day's  labor  to  eight 
hours  so  far  as  the  public  service  is  con- 
cerned. Whether  these  regulations  have 
resulted  to  the  advantage  of  the  employed 
or  the  employer  is  not  yet  settled.  It  is 
alleged  that  they  have  tended  to  make  dis- 
cord in  the  more  important  establishments, 
causing  the  employers  to  lower  the  wages 
paid,  and  at  the  same  time  making  the  em- 
ployed restless  and  more  disposed  than  for- 
merly to  demand  unreasonable  terms.  Look- 
ing at  the  mechanics  of  the  United  States 
in  the  aggregate,  it  may  safely  be  said  that 
they  live  in  comfortable  houses,  have  the 
best  of  plain  food,  husband  their  money 
with  care,  and  are  less  addicted  to  intem- 
perance, than  are  certain  classes  who  think 
themselves  their  superiors.  They  are  not 


LIFE  AMONG  THE  MECHANICS.  139 

so  driven  in  their  employments,  that  they 
cannot  enjoy  a  suitable  amount  of  recreation, 
and  their  amusements  or  entertainments  dif- 
fer according  to  their  nationalities.  If  the 
Germans  have  their  gardens,  where  they 
congregate  at  stated  times  to  play  games 
and  drink  beer ;  the  Irish  have  their  festi- 
vals in  honor  of  their  patron  saints,  as  well 
as  their  wakes  or  hilarious  funerals  ;  while 
the  native-born  inhabitants  amuse  them- 
selves with  pastimes  peculiarly  American, 
including  pick-nicks,  steamboat  excursions 
and  athletic  games — but  seldom  omitting  to 
read  the  daily  papers,  or  have  something  to 
do  with  politics.  While  it  is  true  that  there 
may  here  and  there  be  found  artisans  who 
have  a  hard  struggle  to  get  along  comforta- 
bly, yet  a  large  proportion,  who  are  indus- 
trious and  frugal  succeed  in  laying  up 
money  and  surrounding  themselves  with  the 
elegancies  of  life.  Indeed,  in  many  parts 
of  the  country  very  marked  changes  are  go- 
ing on  among  the  people,  and  successful 
mechanics  are  pushing  aside  the  older  and 


140  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MECHANICS. 

more  aristocratic  families,  and  giving  tone 
to  society.  If  called  upon  to  say  from 
what  sphere  the  largest  number  of  moder- 
ately wealthy  men  have  arisen,  our  obser- 
vation would  incline  us  to  answer,  the  me- 
chanical and  artisan  classes.  There  are 
men  in  all  the  larger  cities,  who  were  once 
engaged  in  the  most  ordinary  employments, 
but  who  have  amassed  fortunes  that  are 
truly  regal,  and  who  are  using  their  wealth, 
in  helping  the  poor,  building  hospitals  and 
founding  institutions  of  learning,  thereby 
proving  that  all  the  wisdom  and  benevolence 
are  not  possessed  alone  by  the  cultivated 
and  intellectual  classes. 

By  way  of  illustrating  the  wonderful 
changes  that  have  taken  place,  in  mechani- 
cal employment,  through  the  inventions  of 
machinery,  we  may  direct  attention  to  the 
simple  affair  called  a  button.  The  first 
manufacturer  in  America,  of  these  useful 
articles,  was  one  Samuel  Williston.  He 
was  a  country  merchant,  and  while  selling 
buttons  made  of  wood,  he  conceived  the 


LIFE   AMONG    THE   MECHANICS.  141 

idea  of  covering  them  with  cloth,  and  he 
invented  a  machine  for  that  purpose,  which 
was  the  first  one  invented  in  the  United 
States.  From  this  humble  beginning, 
sprung  up  a  factory,  until  this  man  was 
found  to  be  making  one-half  of  the  buttons 
made  in  the  whole  world.  Several  factories 
which  he  established,  are  coining  wealth 
for  their  proprietors  and  are  known  to  the 
dealers  in  all  climes.  This  man  Williston, 
is  now  nearly  eighty  years  of  age  and  is 
worth  about  five  millions  of  dollars  ;  he  is 
also  a  very  liberal  man,  and  has  endowed 
several  institutions  of  learning  with  more 
than  a  million  of  dollars,  one  of  them  being 
Amherst  College,  where  several  Japanese 
students  are  at  the  present  time  receiving 
their  education. 

The  inventive  talent  of  the  Americans,  is 
universally  recognized,  and  its  special  power 
is  derived  from  the  existing  facilities  for 
education.  Among  these,  the  most  impor- 
tant undoubtedly,  are  those  afforded  by  the 
great  mechanical  exhibitions,  which  take 


142  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MECHANICS. 

place  in  some  of  the  leading  cities  every 
year.  One  of  them,  which  occurs  in  New 
York,  has  come  to  be  considered  as  a 
national  institution.  The  total  number  of 
laboring-men,  women  and  children  in  the 
United  States,  has  been  estimated  at  thir- 
teen (13,000,000)  millions;  and  it  is  said 
that  the  steam  machinery  of  the  country 
is  equal  to  two  (2,000,000)  millions  of 
horse  power,  or  twenty-eight  (28,000,000) 
millions  of  grown  men ;  so  that  while  one- 
third  of  this  work  is  done  by  laboring-men, 
two-thirds  are  performed  by  laboring  ma- 
chines. According  to  the  opinion  of  a  lead- 
ing British  Statesman — there  are  few  coun- 
tries in  which  the  working  man  is  held  in 
such  repute  as  in  the  United  States.  The 
laboring  classes  may  be  said  to  embrace  the 
entire  American  nation.  American  artisans 
prefer  those  occupations  in  which  the  exer- 
cise of  brain  is  in  greater  demand  than  that 
of  the  elbow,  and  their  chief  ambition  is 
to  attain  the  positions  of  master  workmen. 
Being  educated,  they  perform  their  duty 


LIFE    AMONG   THE   MECHANICS.  143 

with  less  supervision  than  is  required,  when 
dependence  is  to  be  placed  upon  uneducated 
hands.  It  rarely  happens  that  a  workman, 
who  possesses  superior  skill  in  his  craft,  is 
disqualified  to  take  the  responsible  position 
of  superintendent  by  the  want  of  education 
and  general  knowledge.  The  true  mechanic 
toils  at  his  trade  under  the  conviction  that 
manual  labor,  to  be  effective,  must  adapt 
itself  almost  wholly  to  the  direction  of 
science;  and  that  under  that  direction  un- 
skilled labor  necessarily  becomes  skilled, 
and  limited  trusts  enlarge  into  influential 
responsibility. 

As  already  intimated  in  this  paper,  the 
records  of  the  Patent  Office  bear  witness  to 
the  effects  of  general  education  in  the  de- 
velopment of  mechanical  ingenuity  in  the 
American  people.  No  where  in  the  world, 
has  it  been  justly  said,  does  it  exist  to  the 
same  extent ;  and  yet,  in  some  of  the  most 
important  departments  of  manufacture,  the 
people  are  now  nearly  stationary,  while  in 
others  they  make  but  little  progress.  A  few 


144  LIFE   AMONG   THE    MECHANICS. 

years  ago,  Germany  sent  to  Massachusetts 
for  machinery  to  manufacture  woolen  cloth ; 
but  to-day  there  is  scarcely  any  broadcloth 
made  in  any  of  the  United  States.  Many 
of  the  most  important  improvements  in  the 
cotton  manufacture  are  of  American  origin; 
and  yet  the  amount  of  cotton  wool  now  con- 
sumed, hardly  exceeds  that  which  was  re- 
quired eight  years  ago.  The  same  is  true  of 
various  other  articles  of  manufacture.  In  the 
last  ten  years  the  population  has  increased 
about  nine  millions ;  and  yet  the  number 
of  persons  engaged  in  many  of  the  manu- 
facturing establishments  is  not  now  greater 
than  it  was  then.  The  whole  increase, 
therefore,  is  forced  into  agriculture  and 
trade;  and  a  new  class  of  men,  called  "mid- 
dle men " — who  neither  produce,  nor  sell 
at  their  own  risk — has  sprung  into  exist- 
ence, whose  influence  upon  the  prosperity 
of  the  country  is  thought  to  be  of  doubtful 
character/  •• 


PART   FIFTH 


RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  INSTITUTIONS. 


UNDER  this  head  we  propose  to  submit 
a  general  account  of  religion  in  the  United 
States. 

There  is  no  State  Religion,  and  the  Gov- 
ernment undertakes  only  to  maintain  order 
and  administer  justice  to  all,  and  they  are 
entirely  free  to  choose  any  kind  of  religion, 
save  those  which  are  contrary  to  its  civil 
laws.  Men  associate  themselves  according 
to  their  preferences  under  separate  organi- 
zations called  churches.  They  all  believe 
in  one  eternal  and  incomprehensible  Deity, 
and  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  All 
these  churches  have  a  book  called  the  Bible. 
This  book  is  believed  to  be  a  revelation 
from  the  Deity  or  God,  and  is  divided  into 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  the  former 
being  called  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and 


148         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS. 

the  latter  the  Greek  Scriptures.  They 
claim  that  the  Old  Testament  contains  the 
most  ancient  writings  known,  and  gives  a 
history  of  the  world  and  of  man  from  the 
creation,  and  also  prophesies  the  coming  of 
Christ  at  a  given  time,  which  is  fulfilled  in 
the  New  Testament,  wherein  there  is  a  his- 
tory of  the  birth  and  ministry,  death  and 
resurrection  of  Christ,  contained  in  its  prin- 
cipal portion  called  the  Gospel,  the  mean- 
ing of  which  word  is  "  good  news,"  and  is 
applied  to  the  story  of  Christ.  Christ  is 
believed  to  have  been  "  God  manifest  in 
the  flesh,"  and  all  who  believe  in  Him  are 
called  Christians. 

As  specimens  of  each  of  these  parts  of 
the  Bible  we  quote  here  some  of  its  leading 
features.  From  the  Old,  the  "Decalogue" 
containing  the  Ten  Commandments  or  pre- 
cepts, written  on  two  tables  of  stone,  claimed 
to  have  been  delivered  by  God  to  an  in- 
spired man  called  Moses,  at  Mount  Sinai, 
in  Asia ;  they  will  be  found  in  the  follow- 
ing words  : 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS.         149 

"And  God  spake  all  these  words  saying, 
I  am  the  Lord  thy  God  which  have  brought 
thee  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  out  of  the 
house  of  bondage.  (1)  Thou  shalt  have  no 
other  gods  but  me.  (2)  Thou  shalt  not  make 
unto  thee  any  graven  image,  or  any  likeness 
of  anything  that  is  in  the  heaven  above  or 
in  the  earth  beneath,  or  that  is  in  the  water 
under  the  earth ;  thou  shalt  not  bow  down 
thyself  to  them  nor  worship  them  ;  for  I 
the  Lord  thy  God  am  a  jealous  God,  visit- 
ing the  iniquity  of  the  fathers  upon  the 
children  unto  the  third  and  fourth  genera- 
tion of  them  that  hate  me,  and  shewing 
mercy  unto  them  that  love  me  and  keep 
my  commandments. 

(3)  "Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the 
Lord  thy  God  in  vain,  for  the  Lord  will  not 
hold  him  guiltless  that  taketh  His  name  in 
vain.  Remember  the  Sabbath  day  to  keep 
it  holy.  Six  days  shalt  thou  labor  and  do 
all  thy  work ;  but  the  seventh  day  is  the 
Sabbath  of  the  Lord  thy  God ;  in  it,  thou 
shalt  not  do  any  work,  thou,  nor  thy  son, 


150         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   ANI>   INSTITUTIONS. 

nor  thy  daughter,  thy  man-servant,  nor  thy 
maid-servant,  nor  thy  cattle,  nor  thy  stran- 
ger that  is  within  thy  gates  ; 

(4)  "  For  in  six  days   the  Lord  made 
heaven  and  earth,  the  sea,  and  all  that  in 
them  is,  and  rested  the  seventh  day:  where- 
fore the  Lord  blessed  the  seventh  day  and 
hallowed  it. 

(5)  "  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother : 
that  thy  days  may  be  long  upon  the  land 
which  the  Lord  thy  God  giveth  thee. 

(6)  "  Thou  shalt  not  kill. 

(7)  "  Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery. 

(8)  "  Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

(9)  "  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness 
against  thy  neighbor. 

(10)  "  Thou  shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbor's 
house,  thou  shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbor's 
wife,  nor  his  man-servant,  nor  his  maid-ser- 
vant, nor  his  ox,  nor  his  ass,  nor  anything 
that  is  thy  neighbor's." 

From  the  New  Testament  we  quote  a 
part  of  Christ's  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  as 
follows : 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         151 

"  Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit,  for  theirs 
is  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

"  Blessed  are  they  that  mourn ;  for  they 
shall  be  comforted. 

"  Blessed  are  the  meek ;  for  they  shall 
inherit  the  earth. 

"  Blessed  are  the  merciful ;  for  they  shall 
obtain  mercy. 

"  Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart ;  for  they 
shall  see  God. 

"  Blessed  are  the  peace-makers ;  for  they 
shall  be  called  the  children  of  God. 

"  Blessed  are  they  which  are  persecuted 
for  righteousness'  sake ;  for  theirs  is  the 
kingdom  of  heaven. 

"  Blessed  are  ye  when  men  shall  revile 
and  persecute  you  and  shall  say  all  manner 
of  evil  against  you  falsely  for  my  sake." 

After  thus  declaring  who  are  blessed,  he 
goes  on  to  say  who  are  the  salt  of  the  earth, 
the  light  of  the  world ;  and  that  he  came 
to  fulfil  the  law ;  what  it  is  to  kill,  commit 
adultery,  and  to  swear.  He  exhorts  man 
to  suffer  wrong ;  to  love  even  his  enemies ; 


152         RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

to  labor  after  perfectness ;  to  give  alms ; 
teaches  him  how  to  pray,  how  to  forgive, 
how  to  fast,  where  to  lay  up  treasures,  how 
to  serve  God,  and  not  to  serve  mammon, 
not  to  be  careful  for  worldly  things,  to  seek 
God's  kingdom.  He  reproves  rash  judg- 
ment, forbids  to  cast  holy  things  to  dogs. 
He  warns  them  to  beware  of  false  prophets; 
to  be  doers  of  the  word,  and  to  be  like 
houses  built  upon  a  rock.  He  then  teaches 
the  following  prayer : 

"  Our  Father  which  art  in  Heaven,  Hal- 
lowed be  thy  name,  Thy  kingdom  come, 
Thy  will  be  done  in  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven; 
give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread ;  and  for- 
give us  our  debts,  as  we  forgive  our  debtors, 
and  lead  us  not  into  temptation,  but  deliver 
us  from  evil,  for  thine  is  the  kingdom,  and 
the  power  and  the  glory,  forever.  Amen." 

In  another  place  he  says  :  "  Thou  shalt 
love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart, 
and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy 
mind.  This  is  the  first  and  great  command- 
ment, and  the  second  is  like  unto  it :  Thou 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         153 

shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself.  On 
these  two  commandments  hang  all  the  law 
and  the  prophets." 

And  still  in  another  part  of  the  Gospel 
we  find  this  assertion :  "  Not  every  one 
that  saith  unto  me,  Lord,  Lord,  shall  enter 
into  the  kingdom  of  heaven ;  but  he  that 
doeth  the  will  of  my  Father  which  is  in 
heaven." 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  Christ  was  cru- 
cified on  a  cross,  and  the  same  has  ever 
been  considered  a  symbol  of  suffering,  we 
quote  the  following  mandate  :  "And  when 
he  had  called  the  people  unto  him  with  his 
disciples,  also,  he  said  unto  them — Whoso- 
ever will  come  after  me,  let  him  deny  him- 
self and  take  up  his  cross,  and  follow  me. 
For  whosoever,  will  save  his  life,  shall  lose 
it ;  but  whosoever  shall  lose  his  life,  for  my 
sake,  and  the  Gospel's,  the  same  shall  save 
it.  For  what  shall  it  profit  a  man,  if  he 
shall  gain  the  whole  world  and  lose  his  own 
soul  ?  or  what  shall  a  man  give  in  exchange 
for  his  soul?  Whosoever,  therefore,  shall 


154        EELIGIOUS    LIFE  AND  INSTITUTIONS. 

be  ashamed  of  me  and  of  my  words  in  this 
adulterous  and  sinful  generation,  of  him 
also,  shall  the  Son  of  man  be  ashamed, 
when  he  cometh  in  the  glory  of  his  Father 
with  the  holy  angels." 

What  is  called  the  "  golden  rule  "  is  con- 
tained in  the  following  words  :  "  Therefore 
all  things  whatsoever  ye  would  that  men 
should  do  to  you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them  : 
for  this  is  the  law  and  the  prophets." 

These  specimens  will  show  how  the 
Christian  religion  accords  with  the  Bible. 

Both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  con- 
tain, as  most  of  such  books  do,  many  won- 
derful and  strange  stories,  hard  ,to  be  com- 
prehended. The  present  writer  deems  it 
best  not  to  allude  here  to  any  of  them,  as 
they  appear  to  him  to  be  of  no  grave  im- 
portance, in  regard  to  their  real  religious 
essence.  The  increasing  influence  of  the 
Bible  is  marvellously  great,  penetrating 
everywhere.  It  carries  with  it  a  tremend- 
ous power  of  freedom  and  justice,  guided  by 
a  combined  force  of  Wisdom  and  Goodness. 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         155 

Education,  Industry  and  Benevolence  are 
also  other  strong  agents  of  the  Bible  influ- 
ence. The  believers  in  it  have  schools,  and 
preaching,  and  missionary  enterprises.  For 
the  care  and  help  of  all  the  unfortunate 
they  have  Institutions.  These  are  of  three 
general  kinds  : 

First.  Schools  for  the  masses,  supported 
by  the  State,  though  this  does  not  exclude 
schools  supported  by  those  directly  partak- 
ing of  the  benefit. 

Second.  Institutions  of  Mercy,  Asylums 
for  the  Blind,  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  ;  and  the 
Insane.  These,  because  of  the  great  ex- 
pense attending  them  are  general  and  are 
supported  by  the  State,  while  hospitals 
and  infirmaries  and  lying-in  establishments 
are  denominational  or  belong  to  churches, 
and  are  supported  by  charitable  contribu- 
tions. 

Third.  Penal  Institutions,  which  include 
houses  of  correction  for  young  persons,  jails 
and  penitentiaries.  All  these  being  conduc- 
ted more  upon  the  principle  of  reforming 


156         RELIGIOUS    LIFE  AND  INSTITUTIONS. 

the  evil-doers  than  upon  the  principle  of 
punishing  them. 

Having  now  given  a  general  outline  of 
the  system  of  religion,  we  will  give  a  few 
particulars  connected  with  the  separate 
organizations. 

There  are  three  great  divisions  of  the 
Christian  Church  throughout  the  world, — 
Protestant,  Roman  Catholic,  and  Greek 
Church, — the  latter  being  organized  in  the 
United  States  only  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  name  Protestant  was  first  given 
in  Germany  to  those  who  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Martin  Luther,  an  Augustine  monk, 
protested  against  a  decree  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  V,  to  support  the  doctrines  of  Rome. 
The  Pope,  Leo  X,  had  granted  indulgences 
for  sins,  on  the  payment  of  certain  sums  of 
money  into  the  church  treasury,  and  this  was 
deemed  wrong  by  Luther,  who  soon  found- 
ed a  religion  in  opposition  to  such  teach- 
ings, arid  the  name  Protestant  now  compre- 
hends chiefly  all  those  Christians,  who  are 
opposed  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         157 

Numerous  denominations  or  sects  have 
since  sprung  up  among  the  Protestants,  and 
they  may  be  named  as  follows : 

Methodists,  Presbyterians,  Congregation- 
alists,  Baptists,  Episcopalians,  Lutherans, 
Moravians,  Quakers,  Dutch  Reformed 
Church,  Universalists,  Unitarians,  and  a 
few  others.  The  sacred  volume  or  Bible,  in 
which  all  these  sects  believe,  although  some 
of  them  interpret  it  differently  from  others, 
is  chiefly  printed  and  circulated  by  special 
Bible  Societies,  which,  in  connection  with 
other  Societies  established  in  Europe,  have 
issued  the  book  or  parts  of  it  in  one  hundred 
and  sixty-five  different  languages,  and  cir- 
culated it  to  the  extent  of  one  hundred  and 
one  millions  of  copies  during  the  present 
century.  With  regard  to  the  leading  prin- 
ciples just  mentioned,  the  great  multitude 
of  Protestants  are  agreed,  but  the  sects,  in 
their  modes  of  worship,  are  somewhat  differ- 
ent from  each  other,  and  must  be  mentioned 
separately.  Of  these,  the  most  extensive 
class  are  the  Methodists. 


158         EELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

This  sect  was  founded  in  England  and  is 
known  by  the  names  of  Methodist  Episcopal 
and  Methodist  Connection.     It  receives  its 
name  Methodist  from  the  fact  that  its  mem- 
bers profess  to  be  guided  in  their  living  by 
the   methods  laid   down  in  the  Bible,  and 
the  name  of  Episcopal  marks  that  branch 
whose  power  is   vested  in  bishops.     They 
have  arranged  their  doctrines  of  belief  into 
twenty-five    articles ;    they  recognize   the 
two  great  sacraments  of  Baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper,  in  common  with  all  Protes- 
tants.    They  are  ruled  by  what  is  termed 
a    Conference,  and  their   principal   officers 
are  called  Bishops,  Preachers,  Deacons  and 
Elders.      Their   churches    are   plain,     and 
usually  built  without  steeples  or  towers. 
Many  of  the  Preachers  spend  their  time  in 
travelling  from  one  part  of  the  country  to 
another  as  missionaries. 

They  own  an  extensive  book  establish- 
ment, and  annually  give  large  sums  of  money 
for  the  support  of  missionaries  in  various 
parts  of  the  world.  In  1870,  their  Preachers 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AXD   INSTITUTIONS.         159 

numbered  19,170 ;  regular  members  2,623,- 
201 ;  Colleges,  23  ;  Academies  and  Semi- 
naries of  learning,  85 ;  while  the  total 
amount  of  their  property  was  about  seven 
millions  of  dollars. 

Presbyterians  are  governed  by  presbyte- 
ries or  associations  of  Ministers  and  Ruling 
Elders;  several  adjoining  presbyteries  meet 
under  the  name  of  Synod,  and  their  General 
Assembly,  which  is  their  highest  tribunal,  is 
composed  of  delegates  from  each  presbytery; 
this  body  meets  annually  and  attends  to 
the  interests  of  their  church  throughout 
the  country.  Although  known  in  various 
parts  of  Europe,  this  sect  was  introdujed 
into  America  from  Scotland,  where  it  is  the 
Established  Church.  The  doctrines  which 
they  profess  are  purely  evangelical  on  all 
points.  They  give  the  name  of  bishop  to 
each  minister,  and  hold  them  equal  in  power; 
the  meaning  of  the  word  bishop  being  over- 
seer. In  1870,  the  total  number  of  minis- 
ters was  4,877 ;  the  churches,  5,342  ;  and 
the  members  or  communicants,  521,945. 


160         KELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

The  amount  contributed  and  expended  for 
church  and  missionary  operations  was  about 
$8,000,000.  One  of  their  customs  is  to 
have  protracted  meetings,  which  continue  for 
several  days  at  a  time,  and  often  terminate 
in  what  are  called  revivals  of  religion,  usu- 
ally bringing  many  new  members  into  their 
congregations. 

Closely  allied  to  the  above  is  the  sect 
called  Congregationalists.  It  is  the  same 
as  that  known  in  England  as  the  Indepen- 
dents, and  they  have  been  identified  with 
America  ever  since  1620,  when  the  Pilgrims 
first  landed  on  the  shores  of  New  England. 
The  essential  peculiarity  of  this  church  is 
that  it  maintains  the  independence  of  each 
congregation.  It  is  associated  with  Pres- 
byterians in  missionary  and  publishing  en- 
terprises ;  its  colleges  are  numerous  and  its 
chief  strength  lies  within  the  New  England 
States;  its  ministers  number  3,043;  church- 
es, 2,341 ;  its  members,  306,518;  and  in  the 
last  forty  years  it  has  expended  for  religi- 
ous purposes  nearly  six  millions  of  dollars. 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         161 

Next  to  the  Methodists,  in  point  of  num- 
bers, are  the  Baptists.  They  differ  from 
all  other  sects  in  regard  to  the  rite  of  Bap- 
tism; they  not  only  exclude  infants  from 
the  rite,  but  in  case  of  all  adults,  insist  upon 
immersion,  or  subjecting  the  entire  body  to 
the  influence  of  water ;  hence  they  have  in 
most  of  their  churches  a  large  tank  or  basin, 
built  behind  their  pulpits,  in  which  the  cere- 
mony is  performed ;  but  in  some  parts  of 
the  country  it  is  quite  common  to  perform 
the  rite  in  rivers  or  natural  pools  of  water, 
and  at  such  times,  the  congregated  specta- 
tors'help  to  make  the  scene  impressive;  the 
officiating  pastor  leads  the  person  to  be  bap- 
tized into  the  water  and  dips  the  head  un- 
der, while  pronouncing  the  necessary  form 
of  words.  There  is  a  loose  dress  worn  on 
the  occasion  by  the  pastor  and  the  person 
to  be  baptized.  They  do  not  use  the  title 
of  Bishop,  and  they  recognize  no  officials 
higher  than  Pastors  and  Deacons.  One 
branch  of  this  sect  call  themselves  Close 
Communion  Baptists,  and  will  not  allow 


162         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   A'ND   INSTITUTIONS. 

members  of  other  denominations  to  com- 
mune with  them ;  another  branch  are  called 
Seventh  Day  Baptists,  because  they  con- 
sider Saturday, — or  the  seventh  day  of  the 
week, — the  true  Sabbath.  Still  another 
branch  are  called  Free-Will  Baptists,  be- 
cause of  their  more  liberal  opinions.  Ac- 
cording to  the  latest  records  the  members 
of  this  church  number  1,221,349;  the 
churches,  15,143;  and  ministers.  8,784. 
They  publish  thirty -five  periodicals ;  and 
support  twenty-five  Colleges  and  fourteen 
Seminaries  of  learning. 

We  now  come  to  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church.  It  consists  of  thirty-nine  confed- 
erated dioceses  under  the  care  of  Bishops 
to  whom  their  priests  and  deacons  are  sub- 
ordinate. Each  bishop  has  charge  of  a  dio- 
cese or  circuit  which  is  the  extent  of  his 
jurisdiction  and  generally  comprises  one 
State.  These  representative  bishops  meet 
in  a  general  convention,  composed  of  the 
"  House  of  Bishops,"  consisting  of  all  the 
diocesan  and  missionary  bishops,  and  of  the 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         163 

"  House  of  Clerical  and  Lay  Deputies," 
consisting  of  four  laymen  from  each  diocese. 
This  Convention  meets  triennially.  Each 
diocese  has  its  Annual  Convention,  com- 
posed of  its  Bishop  and  assistant  Bishop, 
if  there  be  one,  and  the  priests,  deacons 
and  laity  from  each  congregation,  and  all 
disputed  questions  are  referred  to  the  House 
of  Bishops.  This  sect  has  a  written  form 
of  worship  called  a  Liturgy,  which  is  em- 
bodied in  a  book  called  the  "  Common 
Prayer ;"  it  is  founded  upon  the  one  used 
by  the  Church  of  England,  with  such  alter- 
ations as  were  deemed  expedient  upon  its 
adoption  in  the  United  States.  There  have 
been  several  dissensions  in  this  church  grow- 
ing out  of  the  use  of  this  book,  and  these 
have  caused  the  division  of  the  sect  into 
High  and  Low  Church.  They  are  the  only 
Protestants,  excepting  the  Dutch  Reformed, 
who  wear  robes  or  gowns  while  performing 
their  priestly  office.  This  gown  is  of  black 
silk,  fitting  loosely,  and  is  worn  while 
preaching  and  at  funerals.  A  white  gown 


164         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

is  used  for  ail  other  services,  which  is  made 
of  white  muslin ;  Bishops  wear  only  the 
white  gown.  They  have  52  bishops,  and 
their  priests  and  deacons  number  2,786  ; 
their  parishes,  2,605  ;  and  members  or  com- 
municants about  two  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand. 

The  denomination  known  as  Lutherans, 
claims  to  be  more  especially  Protestant 
than  any  other,  and  takes  its  name  from 
Martin  Luther,  although  that  celebrated 
reformer  was  opposed  to  its  use  in  that  con- 
nection. Another  name  for  this  church  is 
that  of  the  United  Evangelical  Church. 
They  believe  in  the  actual  salvation  of  in- 
fants, dying  unbaptized. 

In  other  respects  the  Lutherans  substan- 
tially agree  with  all  the  denominations 
hitherto  mentioned.  It  has  long  been  an 
influential  body  in  America;  its  ministers 
number  1,933 ;  its  churches,  3,417;  and 
members,  387,746.  Closely  allied  to  the 
sects  already  mentioned  are  those  known  as 
the  Dutch  Reformers  and  the  Moravians. 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         165 

The  first  of  these  has  its  seat  of  power  in 
New  York;  its  ministers  number  974  and 
its  members,  175,091.  The  Moravians, 
though  not  numerous,  have  also  been  noted 
for  their  devotion  to  missionary  labor, 
especially  in  the  northern  parts  of  North 
America. 

All  the  denominations  described  above, 
are  commonly  styled  as  Orthodox  or  Evan- 
gelical. The  following  are  those  which  in 
some  degree  are  in  opposition  to  the  others 
in  both  faith  and  principle.  They  are  re- 
garded very  liberal  and  broad  in  their  views. 

The  sect  known  as  Universalists,  claim 
that  their  doctrines  were  preached  in  the 
United  States,  as  far  back  as  one  hundred 
years  ago.  They  reject  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  giving  to  Christ  the  second  place 
and  making  him  subordinate  to  the  Father  ; 
and  while  declaring  that  God  is  infinite, 
they  believe  in  the  final  destruction  of  evil 
and  the  restoration  of  all  human  souls 
through  Jesus  Christ.  They  do  not  believe 
that  any  of  the  human  race  will  be  finally 


166         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS. 

lost.  Their  government  is  representative 
and  ecclesiastical;  and  they  have  1279 
societies,  998  churches  and  724  preachers  ; 
publish  about  twenty  periodicals,  and  hold 
property  to  the  value  of  about  eight  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars. 

And  next  corae  the  Unitarians.  They 
oppose  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  which  is 
held  by  the  great  majority  of  Protestants,  arid 
believe  in  the  absolute  unity  of  God.  They 
do  not  reject  the  existence  of  Christ,  but 
believe  him  to  have  been  only  a  man.  The 
manner  of  their  worship  is  simple,  and  each 
church  manages  its  own  affairs  separately. 
This  sect  originated  in  the  United  States  in 
1825,  and  is  more  popular  in  Massachusetts 
than  in  any  other  State  of  the  Union.  The 
number  of  societies,  which  they  support,  is 
334,  and  they  have  396  ministers,  a  large 
proportion  of  whom  are  not  permanently 
settled.  They  support  two  Theological 
Seminaries ;  seven  or  eight  periodicals ; 
and  fifteen  charitable  Institutions.  The 
population  connected  with  this  denornina- 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS.         167 

tion  is  variously  estimated  at  from  fifteen 
to  thirty  thousand.  Within  the  last  few 
years  they  have  accepted  the  co-operation 
of  the  Universalists  in  their  efforts  to  do 
good ;  and  they  have  made  the  following 
agreement : 

"  Reaffirming  our  allegiance  to  the  Gos- 
pel of  Jesus  Christ,  and  to  secure  the  largest 
unity  of  the  spirit  and  the  widest  practical 
co-operation,  we  invite  to  our  fellowship  all 
who  wish  to  be  followers  of  Christ." 

Having  now  given  a  general  description 
of  the  various  Protestant  denominations,  it 
is  proper  that  we  should  be  a  little  more 
explicit  in  regard  to  the  sacraments  of  the 
Evangelicals.  They  admit  as  essential  to 
membership  only  two  sacraments,  which  are 
considered  of  Divine  Institution.  These 
are  the  rite  of  Baptism,  and  the  Lord's 
Supper,  called  the  Communion.  Baptism 
»  is  a  representation  or  seal  of  the  new  cove- 
nant, and  is  the  appointed  ordinance  for 
their  introduction  into  the  church,  and  is  a 
sign  of  profession,  whereby  the  promises 


168         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS. 

of  remission  of  sins  and  adoption  into  the 
family  of  Christians,  are  said  to  be  visibly 
sealed  by  the  Holy  Ghost.  All  the  denom- 
inations mentioned  above,  excepting  the 
Baptists,  believe  in  the  efficacy  of  infant 
Baptism,  and  that  it  has  an  influence  on  all 
the  periods  of  life,  and  all  administer  the 
rite,  by  sprinkling  with  water  the  face  of 
the  child  or  adult  believer,  and  sometimes, 
as  in  the  Episcopal  church,  making  the  sign 
of  the  cross  on  the  forehead,  while  the 
minister  pronounces  the  words,  "  I  baptize 
thee  in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  the  Son 
and  the  Holy  Ghost,"  showing  by  these 
words  that  the  person  baptized,  or  the  per- 
son bringing  the  child,  believes  in  the 
Trinity,  or  Triune  God,  the  Father  as  Crea- 
tor, the  Son  as  Redeemer,  and  the  Holy 
Ghost  as  Comforter.  The  water  is  used  as 
an  emblem  of  purity,  and  it  is  not  generally 
supposed  that  tne  outward  sign  will  profit 
those  who  live  and  die  without  the  inward 
grace,  but  is  to  be  an  adoption  into  the 
family  of  God,  by  being  consecrated  to  his 


KELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         169 

service,  and  is  a  safeguard  from  evil,  so  far 
as  the  remembrance  of  this  consecration  has 
its  influence.  Baptism  therefore,  is  sup- 
posed to  commemorate  the  fact  that  Jesus 
Christ  revealed  God  to  be  the  Father,  him- 
self the  Son,  and  the  Spirit  the  Holy  Ghost, 
or  three  persons  in  the  one  Godhead,  all  of 
which  are  acknowledged  by  them,  to  exist 
as  a  mystery,  understood  by  God  alone. 

The  Holy  Communion,  or  Sacrament  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  commemorates  the  fact 
that  Jesus  Christ  lived  and  died,  and  it  de- 
rived its  institution  from  the  fact  that  on 
the  evening  before  his  death,  he  had  a  sup- 
per, commonly  called  the  Last  Supper,  and 
he  gave  bread  and  wine  to  his  disciples, 
saying  "  Take  and  eat  this  bread  in  remem- 
brance of  me,  and  as  often  as  ye  drink  this 
cup  ye  do  show  forth  the  Lord's  death  un- 
til He  come."  These  words  are  found  re- 
corded in  their  Bible  and  are  believed  by 
all  Protestants ;  so  that  this  Sacrament  is 
revered  by  all  who  believe  in  Christ's  sac- 
rifice on  the  cross  to  atone  for  the  sins  of 


170         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS. 

the  whole  world.  The  Episcopalian  arid 
the  Methodist  form  of  partaking  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  is  by  kneeling  around  the 
chancel  in  front  of  the  pulpit,  while  the 
minister  passes  before  them,  first  with  the 
bread,  which  he  gives  to  each  one  saying : 
"  The  body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  which 
was  given  for  thee,  preserve  thy  body  and 
soul  unto  everlasting  life.  Take  and  eat 
this  in  remembrance  that  Christ  died  for 
thee  arid  feed  on  him  in  thy  heart  by  faith, 
with  thanksgiving."  He  then  gives  the  cup 
to  each  one  saying,  "  The  blood  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  which  was  shed  for  thee, 
preserve  thy  body  and  soul  unto  everlast- 
ing life.  Drink  this  in  remembrance  that 
Christ's  blood  was  shed  for  thee,  and  be 
thankful." 

Right  here  we  may  pause  for  a  moment 
to  look  at  a  passage  in  the  New  Testament, 
wherein  Christ  declares  himself  to  be  the 
bread  of  life  to  all  believers,  and  addressing 
himself  to  the  doubting  Jews  : — "'Ihen  Je- 
sus said  unto  them,  '  Verily,  verily  I  say 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         171 

unto  you,  except  ye  eat  the  flesh  of  the 
Son  of  man,  and  drink  his  blood,  ye  have 
no  life  in  you.  Whoso  eateth  my  flesh,  and 
drinketh  my  blood,  hath  eternal  life ;  and 
I  will  raise  him  up  at  the  last  day.  For 
my  flesh  is  meat  indeed,  and  my  blood  is 
drink  indeed.  He  that  eateth  my  flesh, 
and  drinketh  my  blood,  dwelleth  in  me, 
and  I  in  him.  As  the  living  Father  hath 
sent  me,  and  I  live  by  the  Father ;  so  he 
that  eateth  me,  even  he  shall  live.  This  is 
that  bread  which  came  down  from  heaven ; 
not  as  your  fathers  did  eat  manna,  and  are 
dead;  he  that  eateth  of  this  bread  shall 
live  forever/ " 

The  Presbyterians  partake  of  the  Sacra- 
ment sitting  either  around  a  table,  which  is 
placed  in  some  churches,  or  in  the  pews  of 
the  church ;  the  bread  and  wine  being  hand- 
ed to  them  by  the  Elders  of  the  church ; 
the  minister  at  the  same  time  repeating 
words  nearly  allied  to  those  used  by  Christ 
at  the  Last  Supper.  The  Congregational- 
ists  and  Baptists  use  nearly  the  same  forms. 


172         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS, 

The  next  rite  of  importance  is  that  of 
marriage.  It  is  considered  by  all  Christians 
to  have  been  ordained  by  God,  and  there- 
fore, it  is  a  holy  rite,  not  to  be  engaged  in 
without  the  sanction  of  the  proper  authori- 
ties, which  make  the  tie  binding  and  law- 
ful. The  ceremony,  after  a  license  has 
been  granted,  is  performed  either  in  the 
church  or  at  the  home  of  the  bride,  al- 
ways by  a  clergyman,  if  one  can  be  pro- 
cured, but  in  some  cases  of  emergency  it 
can  be  solemnized  or  performed  by  a  Jus- 
tice of  the  Peace.  The  Episcopalians  have 
a  written  form  contained  in  their  Prayer 
Book,  and  the  other  denominations  use  also 
a  set  form  of  words,  although  every  one  in 
conclusion  makes  use  of  the  Bible  text  : 
"  Those  whom  God  hath  joined  together, 
let  no  man  put  asunder,"  which  was  the 
injunction  used  by  Christ  at  the  institution 
of  the  ordinance. 

The  burial  service  for  the  dead  is  also  a 
written  form  with  the  Episcopalians  and 
Methodists,  and  is  generally  performed  at 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         173 

the  house  of  the  deceased,  but  members  of 
the  church  are  frequently  buried  from  the 
church,  where  the  body  is  carried,  for  the 
purpose  of  having  the  burial  service  per- 
formed. It  is  then  borne  out  of  the  church 
by  persons  selected  by  the  family,  called 
pall-bearers,  and  followed  by  the  relatives 
and  friends  to  the  grave,  which  has  been 
previously  prepared,  and  is  there  committed 
to  the  earth  by  the  clergyman,  lowered  into 
the  grave  by  the  pall-bearers,  and  the  earth 
thrown  upon  the  coffin,  and  the  grave  is 
then  closed. 

But  there  are  some  other  religious  classes 
that  must  be  mentioned,  who  are  noted  for 
their  peculiarities. 

The  sect  called  Quakers  or  Friends  was 
founded  in  England  by  a  man  named  George 
Fox,  and  the  recognized  head  in  the  United 
States  was  William  Penn.  The  epithet 
Quaker  was  given  to  them  because  they  of- 
ten trembled  under  an  awful  sense  of  the 
infinite  purity  and  majesty  of  God.  While 
professing  to  be  guided  by  the  Protestant 


174         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

Bible,  they  have  the  following  peculiarities  : 
They  are  very  plain  in  their  manner  of 
dress,  and  in  their  church  buildings ;  have 
no  special  reverence  for  the  Christian  Sab- 
bath ;  speak  in  public  assemblies  only  when 
prompted  by  the  Spirit;  and  they  allow 
women  to  speak  at  their  meetings.  They 
are  to  some  extent  Unitarians  in  belief,  have 
always  been  opposed  to  slavery,  and  also 
to  war,  and  never  participate  in  military 
affairs;  and  in  consequence  of  a  division 
that  once  took  place  among  them,  a  portion 
of  them  followed  the  lead  of  a  man  named 
Elias  Hicks,  and  became  known  as  Hicks- 
ites.  The  city  of  Philadelphia  was  founded 
by  them,  and  Pennsylvania  and  New  York 
have  been  their  principal  fields  of  labor.  Of 
late  years,  they  have  increased  in  numbers 
in  the  Western  States  of  the  Union,  and 
the  sect  now  claims  about  one  hundred  and 
thirty-five  thousand  members,  while  they 
have  four  colleges,  and  quite  a  number  of 
large  boarding  schools. 

The  people  called  Shakers  originated  in 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         175 

England  about  one  hundred  years  ago,  but 
are  now  confined  to  the  United  States. 
The  order  was  founded  by  two  women 
named  Ann  Lee  and  Jane  Wardley,  the 
former  having  professed  to  receive  divine 
light  directly  from  heaven.  They  believe 
that  God  is  dual,  there  being  an  eternal 
Father  and  Mother  in  the  Deity ;  and  the 
same  of  Christ.  They  are  ascetics  ;  live 
in  secluded  communities ;  take  no  part  in 
earthly  governments,  and  are  virtually  op- 
posed to  the  marriage  relation.  They  look 
upon  idleness  as  sin,  and  are  noted  for  their 
neatness  and  plainness  of  dress.  There  are 
twelve  societies  or  settlements  of  them  in 
the  United  States,  and  they  have  not  in- 
creased in  numbers  in  the  last  fifty  years, 
their  total  number  being  less  than  two  thou- 
sand. They  are  famous  for  their  knowledge 
of  gardening,  and  in  their  principal  commu- 
nity called  Mount  Lebanon  in  New  York, 
which  they  own  in  common,  they  carry  on 
an  extensive  business  in  the  way  of  selling 
seeds  and  certain  articles  of  domestic  manu- 


176         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

facture,  often  yielding  an  annual  income  of 
fifty  thousand  dollars.  In  their  religious 
services  they  frequently  resort  to  dancing, 
and  they  believe  that  their  members  have 
the  power  of  healing  diseases  by  means  of 
prayer  and  abstinence  from  food. 

Another  class  of  religionists  are  called 
the  New  Jerusalem  Church  and  was  brigna- 
ted  by  Emanuel  Swedenborg  of  Sweden, 
whose  name  it  sometimes  bears ;  its  doc- 
trines are  founded  upon  the  Bible,  but  are 
considered  by  Protestants  as  very  symbol- 
ical. Its  followers  in  America  are  not  num- 
erous, but  generally  cultured  people.  An- 
other sect  is  known  as  Mormon,  whose 
founder  was  Joseph  Smith,  and  whose  dis- 
ciples have  built  up  a  city  in  Utah ;  they 
are  the  advocates  of  poligamy,  which  they 
practice  to  a  large  extent,  and  Brigham 
Young  is  the  name  of  their  present  leader, 
but  who,  within  a  short  time,  has  been  pros- 
ecuted by  the  General  Government  as  an 
offender  against  the  criminal  laws  of  the 
country. 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         177 

Next  come  the  Millerites  or  Second  Ad- 
ventists,  founded  by  one  William  Miller, 
who  preached  that  the  world  was  to  be  de- 
stroyed on  a  particular  day,  when  his  disci- 
ples dressed  themselves  in  white  robes  and 
waited  for  the  great  event  in  open  fields ; 
and  although  the  predictions  of  this  pretend- 
ed prophet  were  not  fulfilled,  the  sect  still 
survives  to  a  small  extent.  And  then  there 
are  the  Tunkers  or  Harmless  People,  who 
profess  to  be  animated  in  their  religion  by 
fraternal  love;  the  Spiritualists,  so-called, 
who  boast  that  they  are  infidels  and  here- 
tics; the  Perfectionists,  who  advocate  a 
new  and  perfect  way  of  Society ;  the  Social- 
ists, the  Fourierites,  the  Trappists,  who  be- 
lieve in  a  "  community  of  goods,"  and  final- 
ly the  Female  Seers,  who  claim  that  women 
are  superior  to  men,  and  that  some  of  their 
sect  have  been  ordained  to  be  prophetesses 
and  seers. 

The  Roman  Catholic  church  comprises 
that  society  of  Christians  whose  members 
acknowledge  the  Pope  as  the  visible  head 


178         KELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

of  the  church.  Its  followers  claim  it  to  be 
co-eval  with  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  Era,  although  it  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  fully  organized,  until  the  fourth 
century.  The  Pope  is  also  called  a  sover- 
eign pontiff,  and  the  word  pontificate  is  used 
to  denote  the  reign  of  a  Pope.  He  resides 
in  Rome,  and  his  power  extends  over  all 
his  followers,  wherever  they  may  exist,  and 
all  the  churches  of  this  sect  in  the  world 
are  under  his  supervision.  All  rules  for 
government  and  discipline  emanate  from 
him  and  he  is  supposed  by  them  to  be  the 
present  representative  of  St.  Peter,  one  of 
Christ's  Apostles,  from  whom  the  popes 
have  in  a  successive  line  proceeded ;  thus 
founding  their  belief  in  Apostolical  succession. 
After  the  Pope,  the  next  in  order  of  rank 
or  power,  is  the  Archbishop  who  presides 
over  the  bishops  of  the  dioceses  over  which 
he  has  jurisdiction ;  then  follow  the  Bish- 
ops, Priests,  Deacons,  and  Sub-Deacons, 
with  similar  powers  to  those  mentioned  in 
the  Episcopal  Church. 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         179 

But  that  which  chiefly  distinguishes  Ro- 
man Catholics  from  Protestants,  is  their  be- 
lief in  the  Virgin  Mary  as  an  intercessor 
between  God  and  man,  and  also  in  the  in- 
tercession of  the  Saints  or  the  good  persons 
who  have  died  and  are  supposed  to  be  in  the 
enjoyment  of  heaven.  These,  they  think, 
can  hear  and  transmit  the  prayers  of  the 
faithful  on  earth,  to  Christ,  and  that  the 
prayers  of  the  Virgin  Mary  are  especially 
efficacious  with  her  son  Jesus  Christ.  They 
believe  in  the  use  of  images  and  relics  of 
Saints  and  the  Virgin,  and  generally  wear 
these  and  the  crucifix,  or  image  of  Christ, 
about  their  person  as  a  supposed  safeguard 
from  evil,  and  as  reminders  of  their  depen- 
dence upon  these  persons  for  salvation. 

Roman  Catholics  also  believe  in  the 
prayers  of  the  church  for  the  dead,  and 
what  is  called  High  Mass  is  said  in  the 
church,  after  death.  These  prayers  are 
said  for  the  dead,  believing  that  there  is  a 
middle  state,  called  Purgatory,  between 
Heaven  and  Hell,  into  which  persons  pass 


180         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS. 

for  purification  before  entering  Heaven,  and 
therefore  that  the  prayers  of  the  church, 
and   good  people,   will  avail   to  get  them 
from    the    transition    state    into    Heaven. 
Their  chief  reliance  for  salvation  is  in  the 
blood  of  Christ,  but  they  believe  that  their 
good  works  of  prayer,  fasting  and  almsgiv- 
ing are  meritorious.     They  believe  in  the 
saving  grace  of  baptism,  and  that  after  the 
form  has  been  used,  the  person  is  regene- 
rate, and  delivered  from  all  sin ;  besides  the 
use  of  water,  they  anoint  with  oil  and  use 
salt,  and  the  rite  is  performed  somewhat 
after  the  following  manner  :       The  priest 
blows   three    times   upon  the   face   of  the 
person,    saying,    "  Depart   out   of  him,   0 
Unclean  Spirit,  and  give  place  to  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  Comforter ; "  he  then  makes  a 
sign  of  the  cross  on  the  forehead  and  breast, 
and  a  grain  of  salt  is  put  into  the  mouth  of 
the  person,  and  he  is  admonished  to  keep 
the  soul  from  the  corruption  of  sin.     Oil  is 
used  to  anoint  the  breast  and  between  the 
shoulders,  and  water  is  then  poured  upon 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         181 

the  head  three  times  in  the  form  of  the 
cross — saying,  "  I  baptize  thee  in  the  name 
of  the  Father,  and  the  Son,  and  the  Holy 
Ghost;"  then  a  white  linen  cloth  is  put 
upon  the  head,  and  a  lighted  candle 
is  placed  in  the  hand,  the  priest  saying, 
"  Keep  the  light  of  faith  ever  burning  by 
the  oil  of  good  works."  He  finally  pro- 
nounces the  blessing:  "Go  in  peace;  the 
Lord  be  with  thee." 

They  believe  in  the  sacraments  of  confir- 
mation, marriage,  penance,  extreme  unction, 
and  holy  orders,  but  that  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  or  Eucharist,  as  they  call  it,  and 
Baptism,  are  the  only  ones  held  in  common 
with  Protestants,  and  we  will  only  give 
these  to  show  how  they  differ  from  that 
body  of  Christians.  They  believe  in  the 
Real  Presence  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  in  the  Lord's  Supper;  or  that  the 
bread  and  wine  are  changed  by  the  cpnse- 
cration  of  the  priest  into  the  real  body  and 
blood  of  Christ;  this  they  term  Transubstan- 
tiation,  or  the  change  of  the  substance  from 


182     .    RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS. 

bread  and  wine  into  flesh  and  blood.  In 
performing  this  sacrament  the  priest  blesses 
the  bread,  or  wafer,  as  they  call  it,  and  then 
the  people  go  up  to  the  rail  before  the  altar 
and  kneel  down,  holding  a  towel,  or  white 
cloth,  before  their  breasts  so  that  if  a  particle 
of  the  bread  should  fall  it  may  be  received 
into  the  towel  and  not  fall  to  the  ground. 
Then  the  priest  distributes  it  to  them, 
making  the  sign  of  the  cross  with  the  con- 
secrated bread  upon  each  one,  saying,  "The 
body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  preserve  thy 
soul  unto  everlasting  life."  They  do  not 
give  the  cup  to  the  people,  but  the  priest 
takes  all  the  wine,  believing  that  after  con- 
secration, the  whole  body,  and  blood  and 
divinity  is  substantially  contained  in  the 
wafer  or  in  the  wine,  and  that  it  is  not  nec- 
essary to  give  both,  and  the  bread  is  distrib- 
uted instead  of  the  wine,  as  there  is  danger 
of  spilling  the  blood  of  Christ  if  all  receive 
the  cup. 

Their  church  service  is  called  the  mass, 
and  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  liturgy  or  manual. 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         183 

It  is  read  in  Latin,  that  being  the  original 
language  in  which  it  was  written,  and  the 
translation  accompanies   each  part,  and  is 
thus  comprehended  by  those  who  can  read, 
while  the  ignorant  accept  the  form  and  hear 
it  in  a  devout  manner,  believing   in   the 
power  of  the  priest  to  present  it  to  God 
for  them,  although  they  may  not  under- 
stand the  words.     Their  faith  in  the  priest- 
hood is  extreme,  and  they  have  frequent 
access  to  them  for  spiritual  advice,  the  spe- 
cial guide  of  each  individual  is  the  priest, 
who  presides  over  the  congregation  of  which 
he  is  a  member,  and  according  to  his  dicta- 
tion are  performed  outward  acts  of  contri- 
tion, satisfaction  and  confession,  called  pen- 
ances, by  which  those  sins  into  which  they 
may  have  fallen  after  baptism  can  be  remit- 
ted ;  some  of  these  penances  are  very  se- 
vere, sometimes  requiring  much  bodily  suf- 
fering and  great  sacrifices  of  time  and  pleas- 
ure, and  often  much  fasting  before  absolu- 
tion is  given  by  the  priest.     They  have 
what  is  called   the   confessional,  and  the 


184         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS. 

apartments  devoted  to  this  purpose  are 
small  closets  or  curtained  places  in  the 
church  or  chapel  wherein  the  priest  stands, 
outside  of  which  the  person  who  confesses 
kneels  with  head  covered,  and  repeats  his 
sins  and  receives  the  admonitions  of  the 
priest;  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  individ- 
ual be  known  personally  to  the  priest;  all 
that  the  priest  is  required  to  do,  is  to  hear 
and  absolve  as  he  may  deem  proper.  This 
constitutes  one  great  hold  which  the  priest- 
hood have  upon  the  people,  and  they  are  will- 
ing to  accept  from  them  all  advice  upon  mat- 
ters of  conscience.  The  priests  wear  robes 
and  vestments  while  officiating  in  the  church , 
and  these  are  sometimes  very  elaborately 
embroidered  and  enriched  by  lace  and  other 
materials.  This  sect  denounces  as  heretics 
all  who  do  not  believe  in  their  teachings, 
and  they  believe  that  none  can  be  saved 
outside  of  their  church,  excepting  by  a  spe- 
cial providence  of  God  in  cases  of  ignorance 
of  their  doctrines. 

The  Bible  is  interpreted  by  their  priests 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         185 

for  the  people,  and  Roman  Catholics  are 
said  to  be  opposed  to  the  Free  Schools  of 
America,  because  the  Bible  is  permitted  to 
be  read  and  taught  in  these  schools.  They 
exclude  it  from  their  own  schools,  as  a 
whole,  believing  it  to  be  wrong  to  place  it 
in  the  hands  of  those  who  may  be  led  to 
interpret  it  for  themselves.  That  portion 
of  it  which  they  allow  for  general  use  con- 
tains only  the  New  Testament,  the  Old 
Testament  being  given  in  the  form  of  a  Bible 
History  which  hns  been  compiled  for  this 
purpose.  This  question  has  caused  a  great 
deal  of  discussion  in  the  political  world,  as 
Free  Schools  are  a  government  institution, 
and  it  has  influenced  many  political  elections 
throughout  the  country,  when  it  has  been 
made  a  test  question,  whether  the  candidate 
under  consideration  would  vote  for  or  against 
Free  Schools.  This  plan  of  interpreting 
the  Bible  is  another  bond  of  Union  for  Ro- 
manists, all  being  made  to  adopt  the  inter- 
pretation of  this  church  before  becoming  a 
member  of  the  same ;  while  Protestants 


186         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

differ  and  are  divided  into  sects  just  as  men 
will  naturally  differ  on  any  subject  they 
are  allowed  to  discuss  freely.  While  the 
Roman  Catholics  are  all  united  under  one 
head,  there  is  however  a  secret  society 
among  them  knowrn  as  Jesuits,  whose  spe- 
cial object  is  for  its  propagation.  It  was 
this  Societjr,  as  our  readers  will  remember, 
who  established  themselves  in  Japan  in 
1549,  but  who  were  destroyed  or  driven 
from  the  Empire  in  1595.  This  sect  had 
in  1870  seven  archbishops;  forty-five  bish- 
ops; seven  vicars-apostolic;  thirty -five  hun- 
dred and  five  priests,  and  according  to 
ttie  best  authorities,  three  millions,  three 
hundred  and  fifty-four  thousand  members. 

The  most  devoted  people  in  this  denom- 
ination think  it  incumbent  upon  them  to 
make  certain  sacrifices  of  time  and  service, 
and  voluntarily  go  into  entire  seclusion 
from  the  world.  For  this  object  they  have 
institutions  called  Nunneries,  to  which  the 
women  retire  and  take  certain  vows,  and 
live  within  their  enclosures  during  the  re- 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         187 

mainder  of  their  lives;  of  course,  these 
women  Lever  marry.  There  are  also  Mon- 
asteries where  the  men  retire  from  the 
world  and  also  take  the  vow  of  celibacy, 
which  means  never  to  marry ;  they  devote 
themselves,  generally,  to  teaching  young 
men,  and  there  is  a  college  for  that  purpose 
connected  with  most  of  these  institutions ; 
as  there  are  also  female  academies  connect- 
ed with  the  Nunneries. 

Another  class  of  religious  people  who 
occupy  a  position  peculiar  to  themselves, 
are  the  Jews  or  Israelites,  whose  history  is 
identified  with  ancient  and  modern  times, 
and  more  replete  with  incidents  than  any 
other.  Although  unable  to  give  the  extent 
of  their  population  in  America,  we  may 
safely  state  that  they  are  to  be  found  in 
almost  every  city  and  town  in  the  country, 
and  they  claim  to  have  about  two  hundred 
congregations.  Though  standing  alone  in 
their  religious  beliefs,  they  have  the  credit 
of  manifesting  great  energy  in  prosecuting 
works  of  charity  in  behalf  of  the  sick,  the 


188         RELIGIOUS   LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

needy  and  the  widows  and  orphans  of  their 
own  people.  A  large  proportion  of  them 
are  wedded  to  the  doctrines  of  their  illus- 
trious father,  the  patriarch  Abraham,  with 
whom  the  recognition  of  one  Supreme  Being 
originated,  and  has  been  cherished  to  the 
present  day  by  Bible  believers.  A  party 
has  sprung  up  among  them,  of  late  years, 
called  the  Reformed  or  Christian  Jews,  and 
they  advocate  a  religion  of  progress,  in  which 
they  have  been  somewhat  successful.  They 
never  intermarry  with  people  not  of  their 
own  race,  and  from  time  immemorial  have 
been  noted  for  their  sagacity  in  accumulat- 
ing money.  Their  history,  which  occupies 
a  large  space  in  the  Bible,  is  considered  the 
most  wonderful  in  the  annals  of  religion 
throughout  the  world. 

Of  all  the  rites  or  ceremonies  which  are 
practiced  by  the  Jews,  the  most  strict  and 
solemn  is  that  which  annually  occurs  on 
what  they  call  the  Day  of  Atonement.  It 
is  marked  by  a  rigid  fast,  which  commences 
at  sunset  on  one  evening,  and  ends  with 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         189 

sunset  on  the  following  day,  during  which 
time  the  more  faithful  of  the  sect  will  not 
permit  a  morsel  of  food  or  water  to  pass 
their  lips.  During  all  this  period  they  offer 
up  prayers,  clad  in  such  garments  as  are 
used  in  burying  the  dead ;  and  until  the 
close  of  this  special  season  for  religious 
worship  their  synagogues  are  crowded  with 
worshippers,  who,  like  the  Quakers,  inva- 
riably wear  their  hats  in  all  public  assem- 
blies. 

In  looking  at  the  people  of  the  United 
States  in  the  aggregate,  it  has  been  esti- 
mated that  about  seven-eighths  of  them  are 
either  allied  to  the  Protestants — have  no 
religion  at  all,  or  come  under  the  head  of 
miscellaneous  sects,  while  the  remainder 
are  Roman  Catholics.  Nearly  all  the  de- 
nominations are  amply  supplied  with  theo- 
logical institutions,  which  number  more 
than  one  hundred,  and  those  who  are  edu- 
cated in  them  are  always  expected  to  be- 
come the  advocates  of  the  doctrines  in 
which  they  have  been  instructed.  As  to 


190        RELIGIOUS    LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

the  benevolent  institutions  for  the  relief  of 
suffering  humanity,  they  are  to  be  found  in 
nearly  all  the  individual  States,  and  are 
chiefly  supported  by  the  Protestant  sects 
or  by  the  people  through  their  legislatures. 
In  their  internal  arrangements  all  these 
asylums  and  hospitals  are  in  keeping  with 
the  advanced  improvements  of  the  age.  By 
means  of  raised  letters  the  blind  are  ena- 
bled to  read ;  by  wise  treatment  the  insane 
are  made  docile,  and  contented  with  their 
unhappy  condition ;  and  by  personal  kind- 
ness and  sign-alphabets  the  deaf  and  the 
dumb  are  instructed  and  made  to  forget 
their  misfortunes.  The  total  number  of 
these  unfortunates  in  the  United  States  is 
nearly  one  hundred  thousand. 

To  give  an  account  of  the  hospitals  the 
homes  for  the  orphan  and  widow  and  other 
charitable  institutions  of  the  country,  would 
occupy  more  space  than  can  be  afforded  in 
this  work,  but  we  can  state  that  they  are 
very  numerous,  liberally  endowed  and  as 
efficiently  conducted  as  any  in  the  world ; 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         191 

and  when  necessary,  people  from  every 
clime  can  find  a  convenient  place  where 
they  may  be  cared  for,  whether  their  trou- 
bles are  the  result  of  poverty,  of  accidents, 
of  sickness  or  any  other  misfortunes. 

Of  all  the  visible  evidences  of  prosperity 
among  the  religious  people  of  America,  the 
most  impressive  and  extensive,  are  the 
Churches  or  Temples  of  Christian  worship. 
Not  only  are  they  to  be  found  on  almost 
every  street  in  the  larger  cities,  but  they 
are  the  leading  architectural  attractions  in 
the  towns  and  villages  of  the  whole  country. 
Bricks  and  every  variety  of  stone  are  em- 
ployed in  their  construction ;  every  school 
of  architecture  is  called  upon  to  beautify 
them  with  their  designs ;  and  the  money 
expended  in  building  them,  ranges  from  ten 
or  twenty  thousand,  to  one  or  two  millions 
of  dollars.  The  current  expenses  of  these 
churches  are  paid  by  voluntary  subscrip- 
tions, or  with  the  money  received  through 
the  renting  or  sale  of  pews  or  seats. 

The   ministers  who   preside  over  these 


192         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS. 

churches,  excepting  the  Roman  Catholics, 
who  are  supported  in  a  different  manner, 
receive  by  way  of  compensation  from  five 
hundred  to  ten  thousand  dollars,  according 
to  the  wealth  of  the  congregations.  These 
churches  are  open  for  public  worship  twice 
on  every  Sunday,  and  occasionally  on  week 
days ;  are  never  used  for  mere  secular  pur- 
poses ;  and  in  many  of  them,  elaborate 
music,  consisting  of  singing  combined  with 
magnificent  organs,  forms  an  important  part 
of  the  services.  It  is  from  these  churches, 
moreover,  that  the  money  goes  forth  for 
the  support  of  charitable  and  benevolent 
institutions,  and  for  spreading  the  religion 
of  the  Bible,  by  means  of  missionaries, 
throughout  the  world.  There  is  also  at- 
tached to  most  of  these  congregations  what 
are  called  Sunday  Schools  in  which  children, 
both  rich  and  poor,  are  instructed  in  the 
ways  of  Christianity.  While  it  is  true,  as 
we  have  already  stated,  that  there  is  no 
State  religion  in  America,  it  is  also  true, 
however,  that  the  religious  denominations 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         193 

of  the  country,  occasionally  exercise  a  de- 
cided influence  in  public  affairs  ;  and  when 
a  man  of  mark  puts  himself  forward  as  a 
candidate  for  an  elective  office,  his  chances 
of  success  very  frequently  turn  upon  the 
nature  of  his  religious  belief,  and  hence,  we 
find  a  perpetual  warfare  going  on  in  America, 
between  the  Protestants  and  Roman  Catho- 
lics, which  is  anything  but  creditable  to  the 
parties,  an  honor  to  the  country,  or  a  bless- 
ing to  the  world. 

Although  only  indirectly  connected  with 
the  foregoing  subject  we  deem  it  quite 
proper  to  append  in  this  place  a  few  words 
in  regard  to  the  noted  Secret  Societies 
known  as  Free  Masons  and  Odd-Fellows. 
The  first,  which  is  identified  with  the  his- 
tory of  architecture,  is  claimed  to  have  orig- 
inated in  the  religious  mysteries  of  the  an- 
cient world — and  especially  in  Asia  Minor. 
Members  of  the  fraternity  are  found  in  every 
quarter  of  the  globe,  but  it  is  perhaps  more 
flourishing  in  the  United  States  than  else- 
where. They  have  what  they  call  a  Grand 


194         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

Lodge  in  all  the  States  of  the  Union,  and 
many  of  the  most  distinguished  men  in  this 
country  have  been  members  of  the  Order. 
Their  highest  officer  is  called  a  Royal  Arch 
Mason ;  in  the  exercise  of  charity,  particu- 
larly towards  their  fellow-members,  they 
are  eminently  liberal;  and  their  houses, 
which  are  called  temples,  are  numerous  and 
often  very  handsome ;  and  their  publications 
are  highly  respectable,  if  not  abundant. 

The  fraternity  known  as  Odd-Fellows, 
bears  a  general  resemblance  to  the  Free  Ma- 
sons, traces  its  origin  to  the  fourth  Century, 
and  has  until  recently  been  confined  to  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States,  in  which 
latter  country  it  is  exceedingly  prosperous. 
Like  the  Free  Masons,  they  have  their 
Lodges  and  many  officers,  and  it  is  said  that 
in  the  last  forty  years  they  have  expended 
for  charitable  purposes  not  less  than  fifteen 
millions  of  dollars.  The  relief  furnished  to 
its  members  during  sickness,  and  to  their 
families  after  death,  is  accorded  to  them 
as  a  right.  Connected  with  this  Order  is  an 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         195 

institution  which  they  call  the  Grand  En- 
campment, whose  members  are  known  as 
patriarchs  and  priests,  and  which  consists 
of  past  officers  of  the  several  subordinate 
Encampments.  The  State  Grand  Lodges 
consist  of  the  past  officers  of  the  subordi- 
nate Lodges  ;  and  the  Grand  Lodge  of  the 
United  States,  which  is  the  highest  body 
of  the  Order  in  this  country,  is  formed  of 
Representatives  elected  by  the  several  State 
Grand  Lodges.  Some  years  ago,  by  the 
action  of  the  present  Yice-President  of  the 
United  States,  Schuyler  Colfax,  (who  is  a 
distinguished  member  of  this  Order,)  women 
were  admitted  to  a  partial  fellowship  in  it; 
and  since  then,  at  stated  periods,  the  differ- 
ent subordinate  Lodges  confer  upon  such 
wives  and  widows  of  Odd-Fellows  who  may 
desire  it,  what  is  termed  the  "  Degree  of 
Rebecca." 

But  there  is  one  feature  connected  with 
religion  in  America,  which  is  peculiar  to 
this  country,  and  must  not  be  forgotten  in 
this  summary.  We  allude  to  the  Young 


196         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS. 

Meris  Christian  Associations.  There  are 
one  thousand  of  these  Societies  in  the  United 
States,  and  they  are  conducted  by  an  active 
element  in  the  various  churches,  and  with- 
out any  denominational  distinctions.  They 
are  supported  by  the  free-will  contributions, 
on  the  part  of  their  members,  and  their 
buildings  in  the  larger  cities,  are  frequently 
quite  splendid  and  beautiful.  They  are 
generally  so  arranged  as  to  afford  under 
one  roof,  a  library  of  the  best  books,  a  Read- 
ing Room  supplied  with  the  leading  news- 
papers and  periodicals  of  the  day,  a  General 
Receiving  Room,  where  religious  services 
are  held  for  those  who  wish  to  attend  them, 
and  a  Lecture  Room,  where  able  men  are 
invited  to  lecture.  To  all  of  these  privileges 
excepting  the  Lectures,  the  public  are  ad- 
mitted without  any  charge,  and  the  good 
which  these  associations  have  already  ac- 
complished in  elevating  the  tone  of  Society, 
is  considered  in  the  light  of  a  national  bless- 
ing. 

It  is  proper,  before  concluding  this  chap- 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         197 

ter,  that  the  writer  should  submit  a  few  par- 
ticulars respecting  its'  arrangement,  which 
are  somewhat  personal  to  himself.  Af- 
ter his  return  to  Japan  from  Europe,  some 
years  ago,  he  was  frequently  questioned 
by  his  countrymen  as  to  his  opinions  about 
the  Christian  Religion.  In  his  replies,  he 
took  the  ground,  that,  so  far  as  he  could 
understand  it,  the  Bible  was  a  good  and  a 
wise  book,  but  that  it  contained  many  things 
he  did  not  understand.  That  while  the  peo- 
ple, who  called  themselves  Christians  claim- 
ed to  have  the  only  true  religion  and  pre- 
tended to  be  better  than  all  other  men,  they 
did  not,  in  that  particular,  differ  from  the 
Chinese  or  Japanese,  who  assert  the  same 
claims  for  their  religions.  He  thought  it 
advisable  that  those  who  desire  to  form  any 
opinion  on  Christianity,  should  acquaint 
themselves  with  it  by  close  and  attentive 
study,  and  then  to  judge  for  themselves. 
Hence,  in  the  present  chapter  his  desire  has 
been  simply  to  give  facts,  and  in  the  plain- 
est possible  terms.  Whatever  may  be  his 


198         RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS. 

private  opinions,  on  matters  of  such  great 
importance,  he  has  not  thought  it  proper 
for  him  either  to  oppose  or  advocate  them. 
According  to  his  observations,  a  very  large 
proportion  of  the  American  people  are  known 
by  the  name  of  Christians,  and  yet  a  great 
many  things  are  said  and  done  by  them, 
which  do  not  accord  with  the  principles  of 
their  own  Bible ;  but,  is  not  this  true  of 
every  nation  upon  the  earth  ?  Where  men 
think  that  they  know  everything,  and  boast 
of  their  superior  wisdom,  the  presumption 
is  that  they  have  yet  much  to  learn ; 
and  all  human  experience  as  well  as  the 
Bible  of  the  Christians,  inculcate  the  idea 
that  before  men  can  be  wise  and  good,  they 
must  be  humble.  It  wrould  be  a  very  won- 
derful thing,  should  the  time  ever  arrive, 
when  the  so-called  Christians,  who  profess 
the  faith,  but  do  not  live  up  to  it,  shall  cease 
to  boast  of  the  superiority  of  their  religion, 
and  regard  themselves  as  worse  than  all 
other  people,  because  of  their  guilt  in  mak- 
ing insincere  professions.  True  Chris- 


RELIGIOUS    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.         199 

tianity  may  not  be  considered  as  identical 
with  the  general  sense  of  civilization — in 
which  the  good  and  the  bad  participate, — 
but  true  philosophy  would  seem  to  teach 
that  it  should  be  a  leading  element  in  such 
civilization. 


PART    SIXTH. 


LIFE  IN  THE  FACTORIES. 


THE  term  factory,  as  employed  in  Amer- 
ica, means  a  place  where  men  and  women 
are  engaged  in  fabricating  goods.  In  this 
paper,  it  is  proposed  to  speak  of  those  es- 
tablishments, especially,  where  the  staples 
of  cotton  and  wool  are  turned  into  the 
woven  fabrics,  commonly  known  as  calicos, 
sheetings,  carpetings,  cloths  made  of  both 
materials,  as  well  as  hosiery  and  worsted 
goods,  blankets,  shawls,  table  covers,  felted 
cloths  and  bedspreads. 

The  largest  amount  of  cotton  ever  pro- 
duced in  this  country,  in  one  year,  was  in 
1860,  the  year  before  the  late  Rebellion, 
when  the  figures  reached  4,669,770  bales, 
each  bale  weighing  465  pounds ;  and  the 
factories  numbered  1091.  According  to 
the  last  published  statistics,  the  supply  of 


204  LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES. 

cotton  reached  only  2,500,000  bales ;  the 
number  of  cotton  mills  or  factories  is  831,  of 
which  444  are  in  New  England ;  86  in  the 
Southern  States ;  220  in  the  Middle  States, 
and  the  balance  in  the  Western  States. 
The  total  value  of  the  cotton  crop  was 
$270,000,000,  and  it  is  said  that  the  people 
producing  it,  sold  and  exported  the  whole 
of  it,  excepting  the  value  of  $10,000,000 
kept  for  home  consumption. 

But,  however  we  may  arrange  the  cot- 
ton statistics  of  America,  the  fact  remains 
that  its  cotton  manufactures,  though  still 
very  large,  have  declined  of  late  years,  and 
are  greatly  excelled  by  those  of  England. 

The  annual  production  of  wool  in  the 
United  States  is  estimated  at  about  one 
hundred  millions  of  dollars,  while  that  of 
Great  Britain  in  1868,  was  in  pounds  260,- 
000,000;  Germany,  200,000,000;  France, 
123,000,000;  Russia  in  Europe,  125,000,- 
000  ;  Spain,  Italy  and  Portugal,  119,000,- 
000 ;  Austria,  South  America  and  South 
Africa,  157.000,000 ;  British  North  Ameri- 


LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES.  205 

ca,  12,000,000;  North  Africa,  49,000,000 ; 
and  Asia,  470,000,000 ;  making  the  aggre- 
gate of  wool  produced  in  the  world,  1,610,- 
000,000  pounds  or  one  pound  and  a  quarter 
to  each  inhabitant  on  the  globe — on  the 
supposition  that  the  total  population  is 
twelve  hundred  and  eighty-five  millions. 
As  is  the  case  with  cotton,  the  most  numer- 
ous woolen  factories  of  America  are  found 
in  New  England.  With  these  few  particu- 
lars in  view,  we  may  proceed  to  speak  of 
the  peculiarities  of  factory  life  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  which  of  course  must  be  done 
in  very  general  terms. 

Wherever  in  the  northern  portions  of  the 
country,  is  to  be  found  the  best  supply  of 
water,  suitable  for  running  machinery,  there 
do  the  manufacturing  establishments  mostly 
congregate.  And  it  is  because  New  Eng- 
land is  rocky  and  not  well  suited  to  agri- 
culture, and  also  because  its  rivers  are 
numerous  and  well  adapted  for  mills,  that 
its  manufactures  have  become  especially 
celebrated.  The  villages  which  have 


206  LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES. 

sprung  up  out  of  this  kind  of  business,  are 
to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  land ;  and 
while  some  of  them  consist  only  of  the 
houses  collected  around  one  factory,  others 
contain  a  number  of  factories,  and  are  pro- 
portionally large.  In  one  place  the  owner- 
ship may  be  vested  in  one  man ;  at  another 
place  in  an  organized  company  of  men ;  and 
then  again,  a  single  man  or  family  may  be 
the  proprietor  of  several  factories,  employ- 
ing thousands  of  hands  to  carry  them  on, 
and  requiring  millions  of  money  for  their 
support.  In  this  connection  a  few  such 
men  as  Amos  and  Abbot  Lawrence  and 
William  Sprague  have  acquired  national  rep- 
utations. In  many  instances  the  small 
villages  alluded  to  are  located  in  the  midst 
of  beautiful  scenery,  and  the  necessary  sur- 
roundings of  the  mills,  which  give  them  ex- 
istence, are  pleasant  little  churches,  com- 
fortable school  houses,  shops  for  the  sale  of 
household  merchandize,  and  appropriate 
houses  for  the  shelter  of  the  operatives. 
Men,  women  and  children  are  all  employed 


LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES.  207 

in  these  factories,  and  generally  speaking, 
they  absorb  all  the  laboring  population  to 
be  found  in  the  country  immediately  sur- 
rounding them,  as  well  as  many  persons 
from  abroad.  The  idea  of  strict  discipline 
is  recognized  and  carried  out,  from  the 
overseer  down  to  the  humblest  workman, 
and  it  is  in  these  small  villages  that  a 
greater  amount  of  comfort  is  enjoyed  by  the 
persons  employed,  than  in  the  larger  manu- 
facturing cities.  Of  course  the  facilities  for 
obtaining  the  raw  materials  of  cotton  and 
wool  and  for  transporting  the  manufactured 
goods  to  market,  are  commensurate  with  the 
necessities  of  the  case ;  and  the  establish- 
ments where  the  goods  are  sold,  are  gene- 
rally located  in  the  larger  cities. 

But  a  truly  comprehensive  idea  of  fac- 
tory life  in  America  cannot  be  had  without 
considering  its  character  as  we  find  it  in 
the  larger  towns  or  cities,  and  no  better  ex- 
ample can  be  selected  for  that  purpose  than 
the  city  of  Lowell  in  Massachusetts.  What 
may  be  said  of  this  place,  is  also  true,  only 


208  LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES. 

in  a  different  degree,  of  all  the  factory  towns 
throughout  the  country,  and  especially  such 
places  as  Lawrence,  Providence,  Norwich, 
and  Worcester ;  and  it  may  safely  he  said, 
that  the  aggregate  number  of  persons  who 
obtain  their  living  hy  means  of  the  cotton 
and  woolen  factories  of  the  country,  is  not 
less  than  three  hundred  thousand.  The 
growth  and  prosperity  of  Lowell  as  a  manu- 
facturing town,  are  without  any  parallel  in 
America.  It  lies  on  the  river  Merrimack, 
and  the  water  power  is  formed  hy  dams  that 
are  thirty  feet  high.  It  has  not  less  than 
fifteen  manufacturing  corporations,  with 
about  sixty  mills,  which  employ  a  capital 
of  fifteen  millions  of  dollars,  and  support 
about  fifteen  thousand  hands,  from  the  be- 
ginning to  the  close  of  the  year,  while  the 
entire  population  of  the  city  is  nearly  fifty 
thousand.  All  the  mills  are  heated  by 
steam  and  lighted  by  gas.  The  women 
who  work  in  them  far  out-number  the  men; 
and  although,  a  few  years  ago,  much  the 
larger  proportion  of  these  were  native  Amer- 


IN   THE   FACTORIES.  209 

k»ans,  so  great  a  change  has  taken  place  in 
this  particular,  that  the  majority  are  now 
foreigners  and  chiefly  Irish.  The  men  are 
without  ambition,  and  the  women  work  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  making  money,  and  not 
because  they  like  the  employment.  Wid- 
ows are  there,  toiling  for  the  education  of 
their  children;  and  daughters  are  there, 
hoarding  up  their  wages  to  pay  the  debts 
of  improvident  fathers.  The  labor  of  the 
women  is  essentially  on  an  equality  with 
that  of  the  men ;  but  while  the  former  receive 
from  two  to  three  dollars  per  week,  in  addi- 
tion to  their  board,  the  latter  receive  from 
four  to  six  dollars  for  the  same  period.  The 
time  for  labor  ranges  from  ten  to  twelve 
hours  per  day,  and  extra  sets  of  hands  are 
often  employed  for  night  work.  The  hands 
are  summoned  to  their  work  by  the  ringing 
of  bells ;  a  brief  time  only  is  allowed  for 
meals;  and  the  only  opportunities  which 
the  operatives  have  for  recreation  or  study 
are  at  night,  when  worn  out  with  the  fatigue 
engendered  by  the  jar  and  whirl  of  the  ma- 


210  LIFE   IN    THE    FACTORIES. 

chinery  in  the  mills.  When  the  American 
element  prevailed  in  these  factories,  an  ear- 
nest effort  was  made  to  elevate  the  minds 
of  the  thousands  of  girls  employed,  and  for 
a  time,  these  efforts  were  successful.  A 
monthly  periodical  was  established  called 
the  "Lowell  Offering,"  which  was  supported 
entirely  by  the  productions  of  females  work- 
ing in  the  mills,  and  in  which,  many  valua- 
ble papers  were  published.  For  a  time  this 
magazine  was  very  successful,  and  excited 
much  wonder  and  comment  among  the  fac- 
tory people  of  New  England,  but  the  novel- 
ty soon  wore  off,  and  the  work  was  sus- 
pended. A  leading  American  writer,  while 
mourning  over  this  fact,  and  also  over  the 
fact  that  there  was  so  little  comfort  to  be 
found  in  these  large  manufacturing  towns, 
said,  that  the  patron  Saint  of  Lowell  was 
Work;  that  the  "Factory  Girls"  might  be 
counted  by  the  acre ;  that  the  motto  over 
the  gateways  should  be,  "Work  or  Die;" 
and  that  the  fifty  factories  in  the  city  were 
each  larger  and  more  imposing  than  the 


LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES.  211 

temples  of  worship  in  Japan  and  China.  In 
the  largest  of  these  mills  from  one  thousand 
to  fifteen  hundred  women  or  girls  are  con- 
stantly employed,  and  from  three  hundred 
to  five  hundred  men.  Each  manufacturing 
company  owns  from  twenty  to  thirty  dwell- 
ings, which  are  leased  to  responsible  persons 
as  boarding  houses  for  the  exclusive  bene- 
fit of  the  hands  employed  in  the  factories. 
These  dwellings  are  large  enough  to  accom- 
modate from  forty  to  fifty  inmates,  and  the 
sexes  are  kept  entirely  separate.  The  Cor- 
porations also  provide  hospitals  in  which 
the  work-people  find  attendance  in  sickness, 
for  which,  if  they  be  unable  to  pay,  the 
employers  are  responsible.  While  it  is  true 
that  the  young  people,  who  are  obliged  to 
work  in  the  factories,  have  little  or  no  time 
to  cultivate  their  minils,  the  younger  chil- 
dren of  the  married  people  have  every  facil- 
ity afforded  them  to  obtain  knowledge ;  the 
common  schools  of  the  city  are  numerous, 
well  conducted,  and  chiefly  under  the  direc- 
tion of  competent  female  teachers.  There 


212  LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES. 

is  also  a  good  library  in  the  city,  where  all 
who  are  fond  of  reading,  no  matter  how 
poor,  can  be  furnished  with  useful  and  en- 
tertaining books  :  and  the  religious  privi- 
leges enjoyed  by  all,  by  means  of  numerous 
churches,  and  the  weekly  day  of  rest  which 
is  called  Sunday,  are  all  that  could  be  de- 
sired. But  notwithstanding  these  many 
advantages,  recent  writers  on  this  subject 
have  declared  that  the  extinction  of  the 
educated  American  operative  has  become 
an  accomplished  fact,  and  the  mills  of  Low- 
ell, as  well  as  those  of  the  Atlantic  States 
generally,  are  now  worked,  as  already  sta- 
ted, by  immigrants  from  Europe — from  Ire- 
land, Wales  and  Germany.  But  these,  as 
they  grow  in  intelligence  and  begin  to  go 
westward,  like  their  predecessors,  demand 
higher  wages,  shorter  hours  for  work,  and 
more  freedom.  They  have  learned  the 
European  lesson  of  fighting  employers  by 
combinations,  and  altogether,  the  problem 
has  become  so  confused,  that  the  manufac- 
turers are  beginning  to  look  for  relief  to  the 


LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES.  213 

Chinese,  a  number  of  whom  have  already 
been  induced  to  enter  the  factories  of  New 
England.  American  girls  are  said  to  be 
growing  dissatisfied  with  the  restraints  of 
factory  life,  where  they  have  to  compete 
with  the  more  rugged  and  experienced 
women  from  European  countries ;  hence 
they  go  to  the  larger  cities  and  become  do- 
mestic servants;  but  that  kind  of  employ- 
ment they  find  irksome,  and  so  they  make 
another  effort  to  succeed  according  to  their 
wishes,  and  emigrate,  as  best  they  can,  to 
the  Western  States. 

In  the  further  elucidation  of  this  subject, 
it  is  proper  that  we  should  consider  the  opin- 
ions of  the  manufacturers  themselves.  They 
assert  that  the  opprobrious  epithet  of  "white 
slavery,"  which  has  sometimes  been  applied 
to  the  labor  in  the  New  England  fac- 
tories is  wholly  unwarranted.  They  claim 
to  have  purged  it  of  every  element  of  feud- 
alism ;  that  they  have  avoided  the  English 
plan  of  employing  whole  families  in  the 
mill,  often  including  children,  who  should 


214  LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES. 

have  been  at  school, — the  families  being 
kept  in  a  state  of  absolute  dependence  upon 
the  mill,  and  exposed  to  suffering  when- 
ever business  was  not  prosperous.  They 
claim  also  to  have  abolished  the  custom  of 
payment  by  orders  on  a  factory  store,  which 
tended  to  involve  the  work  people  in  debt, 
and  they  instituted  the  practice  of  weekly 
payment  of  wages  in  money;  and  that  they 
have  done  all  that  could  be  done,  to  secure 
the  independence  as  well  as  comfort  of 
the  American  operatives. 

And  here  it  occurs  to  us,  we  may  furn- 
ish a  further  illustration  of  factory  life  in 
America  by  submitting  a  brief  description 
of  what  may  be  termed  a  model  New  Eng- 
land establishment,  as  follows  :  It  is  located 
in  the  city  of  Lawrence ;  is  a  joint  stock 
company,  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  stock- 
holders and  nine  directors ;  has  one  hun- 
dred thousand  spindles  ;  and  has  a  capital 
of  $2,500,000,  while  its  property  is  valued 
at  a  considerable  advance  on  that  sum. 
The  manufactured  goods,  consisting  chiefly 


LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES.  215 

of  fabrics  for  the  wear  of  women,  made  both 
of  cotton  and  wool,  which  are  annually  sold, 
amount  to  about  $7,500,000  ;  and  the  to- 
tal dividends,  declared,  during  the  last 
twelve  years,  was  more  than  three  millions 
of  dollars. 

The  total  number  of  work-people  em- 
ployed in  this  factory  is  thirty-six  hundred, 
of  whom  the  men  number  1680 ;  women, 
1510  ;  boys,  between  ten  and  twelve  years 
of  age,  80,  and  between  twelve  and  eigh- 
teen, 140  ;  girls,  between  ten  and  twelve, 
40,  and  between  twelve  and  eighteen,  150. 
The  lowest  weekly  wages,  according  to  gold 
rates,  are  as  follows:  for  men,  $6.75;  wo- 
men, $2.48  ;  boys,  $2.85  ;  and  young  girls, 
$1.82  ;  while  spinners,  weavers  and  a  few 
others,  receive  according  to  the  quantity  of 
goods  produced,  and  some  of  them  large 
wages.  Very  many  of  the  operatives  are 
frugal  with  their  money,  and  have  invested 
their  earnings  in  the  stock  of  the  company 
itself,  deposited  it  in  Saving's  Banks,  or 
purchased  the  bonds  of  the  General  Gov- 


216  LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES. 

ernment ;  some  of  them  have  been  so  suc- 
cessful as  to  be  elected  members  of  the  City 
Government ;  and  not  a  few  are  the  owners 
of  comfortable  houses.  Where  men  are 
obliged  to  hire  houses,  they  pay  only  one- 
eighth  of  their  wages  for  rent ;  and  for  the 
comfort  and  accommodation  of  the  unmar- 
ried females,  a  large  building  has  been  erec- 
ted, holding  not  less  than  eight  hundred 
persons,  who  pay,  for  food,  lights  and  wash- 
ing, only  one-third  of  their  regular  wages. 
Connected  with  the  establishment  is  what 
they  call  a  "  Relief  Society,"  organized  for 
the  care  and  support  of  the  sick  among  the 
work  people.  Every  possible  attention  is 
paid,  both  to  the  morals,  and  intellectural 
culture  of  the  operatives.  No  men  are  em- 
ployed who  are  intemperate  in  their  habits, 
and  the  use  of  profane  language  and  the  ill 
treatment  of  subordinates  strictly  prohibi- 
ted. All  females  are  compelled  to  be  at 
their  lodgings  by  ten  o'clock  at  night,  and 
none  of  them  are  permitted  to  attend  im- 
proper places  of  resort.  No  child  under 


LIFE   IN    THE   FACTORIES.  217 

ten  years  of  age,  according  to  law,  is  allowed 
to  work  in  the  factory,  and  all  the  boys  and 
girls  must  be  furnished  with  from  eleven  to 
sixteen  weeks  of  schooling,  in  each  year, 
and  all  the  schools  are  paid  for  by  the  Com- 
pany. Of  the  persons  employed,  less  than 
fifty  in  every  thousand,  are  unable  to  read, 
and  for  the  benefit  of  all  there  is  a  well 
conducted  Library,  with  pleasant  reading 
rooms  for  both  sexes,  and  every  facility  is 
afforded  for  attending  lectures,  and  places  of 
profitable  amusement.  A  week's  labor  in 
this  establishment  will  produce  more  yards 
of  cloth,  than  is  produced  in  any  European 
mill,  but  it  is  claimed  that  a  yard  of  cloth 
costs  less  in  Europe,  which  latter  point, 
however,  is  not  conceded  by  the  Ameri- 
cans. 

But  let  us  now  look  for  a  moment,  at 
some  of  the  local  results  of  the  cotton  and 
woolen  manufactures  of  recent  times.  It 
has  been  said,  that  where  one  person,  a  cen- 
tury ago,  consumed  one  yard  of  woven 
goods,  the  consumption  per  head,  has  since 


218  LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES. 

risen  to  about  twenty-six  yards.  This  vast 
difference  in  the  comforts  of  every  family, 
by  the  ability  which  they  now  possess  of 
easily  acquiring  warm  and  healthful  cloth- 
ing, is  a  clear  gain  to  all  society,  and  to 
every  individual  as  a  portion  of  society.  It 
is  more  especially  a  gain,  they  say,  to  the 
females  and  the  children  of  families,  whose 
condition  is  always  degraded  when  clothing 
is  scanty.  The  power  of  procuring  cheap 
clothing  for  themselves,  and  for  their  chil- 
dren, has  a  tendency  to  raise  the  condition 
of  females  more  than  any  other  addition  to 
their  stock  of  comfort.  It  cultivates  Jiabits 
of  cleanliness  and  decency,  which  are  con- 
sidered in  America,  great  aids  to  virtue,  if 
not  actual  virtues  themselves.  There  is 
little  self-respect  amid  dirt  and  rags,  accord- 
ing to  the  American  belief,  and  without 
self-respect  there  can  be  no  foundation  for 
those  qualities  which  mostly  contribute  to 
the  good  of  society.  The  power  of  procur- 
ing useful  clothing  at  a  cheap  price  has 
tended  to  raise  the  condition  of  women  in 


LIFE   IN  THE   FACTORIES.  219 

America,  and  the  influence  of  the  condition 
of  women  upon  the  welfare  of  a  community 
can  never  be  too  highly  estimated.  If 
there  be  one  thing  more  remarkable  than 
another  in  the  visible  condition  of  the  peo- 
ple of  the  United  States,  it  is  the  univer- 
sality of  good  clothing.  The  distinction 
between  the  rich  man  and  the  artisan,  or 
between  the  lady  and  her  maid,  is  oftentimes 
almost  imperceptible.  Perhaps  the  absence 
of  mere  finery,  and  the  taste  which  accom- 
panies good  education,  constitute  the  chief 
difference  in  the  dress  of  various  ranks ; 
and  this  feature  of  the  present  time  is  a 
part  of  the  social  history  of  America. 

The  history  of  the  cotton  and  woolen 
manufactures  has  occupied  the  minds  of 
many  of  the  ablest  men  in  the  world,  and 
their  developments  are  of  vital  interest  to 
the  whole  human  family.  The  arts  of 
spinning  and  weaving  were  slowly  devel- 
oped from  the  time  of  the  simple  distaff,  and 
it  was  just  as  they  had  reached  something 
like  completion,  that  an  American  named 


220  LIFE   IN    THE   FACTORIES. 

Eli  Whitney,  invented  the  cotton  gin  in 
1793,  which  at  once  gave  a  new  character 
and  impulse  to  the  growth,  as  well  as  the 
manufacture  of  cotton.  This  invention  was 
the  final  step  by  which  the  whole  process 
of  manufacturing  cotton  into  cloth,  was  ef- 
fected by  machinery  ;  and  just  about  that 
time,  steam  was  introduced  to  the  world  as 
an  agent  of  limitless  power,  in  driving  ma- 
chinery of  every  kind;  new  channels  of 
internal  communication  were  opened  be- 
tween the  different  parts  of  the  world ; 
chemistry  furnished  the  means  for  rapidly 
bleaching  the  fabrics  produced  from  cotton ; 
and  all  the  resources  of  science  and  skill, 
of  invention  and  industry,  seemed  combined 
to  create  an  immensely  increased  demand 
for  the  raw  material  upon  which  all  these 
labors  were  to  be  expended.  And  if  some- 
thing like  this  enterprise  can  be  transported 
to  Japan,  what  may  we  not  expect,  in  the 
future,  from  that  Empire  ? 

There  are   many    wonderful   inventions 
connected  with  the  manufacture  of  cotton, 


LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES.  221 

but  nothing  is  perhaps  more  astonishing 
than  the  rapidity  with  which  some  portions 
of  the  machinery  is  employed.  Notice  the 
fact  for  example,  that  the  very  finest 
thread  which  is  used  in  making  lace  is  passed 
through  the  strong  flame  of  a  lamp,  which 
burns  off  the  fibres,  without  burning  the 
thread  itself.  The  velocity  with  which  the 
thread  moves,  is  so  great  that  the  motion 
cannot  be  perceived.  The  line  of  thread, 
passing  off  a  wheel  through  the  flame,  looks 
as  if  it  were  perfectly  at  rest ;  and  it  ap- 
pears a  miracle  that  it  is  not  burned.  The 
primary  object  of  the  extensive  and  com- 
plicated machinery  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  has  been  of  course  cheap- 
ness of  production,  and  in  that  particular 
the  advance,  from  the  time  of  the  distaff, 
has  been  wonderful  and  success,  complete. 
Nor  has  this  been  done  at  the  expense  of 
the  working  classes.  Ten  years  after  the 
introduction  of  the  machines,  the  people 
employed  in  the  trade,  spinners  and  weav- 
ers, were  more  than  forty  times  as  numer- 


222  LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES. 

ous  as  when  the  spinning  was  done  by  hand. 
It  was  thought  that  the  newly  discovered 
power  might  supersede  human  labor  alto- 
gether, but  such  was  by  no  means  the  case. 
It  only  gave  a  new  direction  to  the  labor 
that  had  previously  been  employed  at  the 
distaff  and  spindle ;  but  it  increased  the 
quantity  of  labor,  altogether  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  cotton,  at  least  a  hun- 
dred fold.  What  is  here  said  of  the  ma- 
chines for  manufacturing  cotton,  is  also  true 
of  those  employed  in  the  woolen,  the  silk, 
and  the  linen  manufactories,  and  to  the  un- 
educated eye  and  understanding  they  are 
all  wonderful,  and  of  incalculable  value  to 
the  commercial  world. 

But  there  is  another  curious  machine 
which  we  may,  with  propriety,  mention  in 
this  place,  and  that  is  one  for  making 
needles.  Hitherto,  the  largest  number  of 
needles  used  in  America  were  made  in  Eng- 
land, but  there  is  a  machine  in  New  Haven 
in  which  the  whole  process  is  performed 
without  the  manual  labor  of  a  single  person. 


LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES.  223 

A  coil  of  steel  wire  is  put  into  it ;  then  the 
machine  cuts  it  off  at  the  required  lengths, 
punches  the  eye  holes,  countersinks  the 
eyes,  and  then  sharpens  the  needle,  when 
it  drops  out  a  perfected  thing.  They  are 
also  arranged  and  put  up  in  paper  by  ano- 
ther machine ;  and  the  number  of  needles 
thus  manufactured  per  day  by  each  ma- 
chine is  about  forty  thousand. 

But  before  dismissing  the  subject  under 
consideration,  we  would  submit  to  the  Jap- 
anese reader  a  few  remarks  on  the  art, 
whose  object  is  merely  to  beautify  the  very 
numerous  fabrics  which  are  made  in  the 
various  factories  already  alluded  to, — the 
art  of  printing  cloth  in  colors.  It  applies 
to  the  most  common  as  well  as  to  the  finest 
productions  of  the  loom ;  and  the  science 
of  the  dyer,  the  beauty  of  his  patterns, 
and  the  perfection  of  his  machinery,  have 
become  universally  celebrated.  As  an  ex- 
perienced writer  has  said,  there  is  a  strik- 
ing, although  natural  parallel,  between 
printing  a  piece  of  cloth  and  printing  the 


224  LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES. 

sheets  of  a  book  or  newspaper.  Block 
printing  is  the  impress  of  the  pattern  by 
hand,  as  block-books  were  made  four  cen- 
turies ago.  There  are  no  block-books  now, 
for  machinery  has  banished  that  tedious 
process.  But  block  printing  is  used  for 
costly  shawls  and  velvets,  which  require 
to  have  many  colors  produced  by  repeated 
impressions  from  blocks  covered  with  dif- 
ferent colors.  Except  for  the  most  expen- 
sive fabrics,  however,  this  mode  is  super- 
seded by  block  printing  with  a  press,  in 
which  several  blocks  are  set  in  a  frame. 
Then  again  they  have  what  they  call  cyl- 
inder-printing, which  resembles  the  rapid 
working  of  the  book  printing  machine,  each 
producing  with  great  cheapness.  As  the 
pattern  has  to  be  obtained  from  several  cyl- 
inders, each  having  its  own  color,  there  is 
great  nicety  in  the  operation ;  and  the  most 
beautiful  mechanism  is  necessary  for  feed- 
ing the  cylinder  with  color;  moving  the 
cloth  to  meet  the  revolving  cylinder;  and 
giving  to  the  machine  its  power  of  impress- 


LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES.  225 

ion.  But  those  who  witness  this  operation 
can  hardly  realize  the  ultimate  effect  sub- 
sequently obtained  by  the  process  of  dyeing. 
Fast  colors  are  produced  by  the  use  in  the 
patterns  of  substances  called  mordants; 
which  may  be  colorless  themselves,  but  re- 
ceive the  color  of  the  dye-bath,  which  color 
is  only  fixed  in  the  parts  touched  by  the 
mordants,  and  is  washed  out  from  the  parts 
not  touched.  Other  processes  are  also 
employed,  which  enhance  the  beauty  of  the 
fabrics. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  chemist,  the  ma- 
chinist, the  designer  and  the  engraver, 
set  the  calico-printtng  works  in  operation, 
so  that  the  carrying  on  of  this  complicated 
business  can  only  be  profitably  done  on  a 
large  scale.  Very  numerous  also  are  the 
employments  required  merely  to  produce 
the  dyes,  with  which  the  calico  printer 
works.  The  mineral,  vegetable  and  even 
the  animal  kingdom,  combine  their  natural 
productions  in  the  colors  of  a  lady's  dress ; 
there  is  the  sulphur  from  Sicily,  salt  from 


226  LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES. 

Austria  or  Turk's  Island,  peculiar  woods 
from  Brazil,  indigo  from  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  madder  from  France,  and  insects 
from  Mexico.  The  discoveries  of  science, 
in  combination  with  experience  and  skill, 
have  set  all  this  industry  in  motion,  and 
given  a  value  to  innumerable  productions 
of  nature,  which  would  otherwise  be  use- 
less or  unemployed ;  and  they  also  create 
modes  of  cultivation  which  are  important 
sources  of  national  prosperity.  But  of  all 
the  discoveries  of  chemistry,  in  this  connec- 
tion, was  that  of  chlorid  of  lime,  which  has 
become  the  universal  bleaching  powder  of 
modern  manufactures.  What  was  formerly 
the  work  of  eight  months,  is  now  accom- 
plished in  an  hour  or  two, — so  that  a  bag 
of  raw  dingy  cotton,  may  now  be  converted 
into  the  whitest  cloth  within  the  space  of  a 
single  month. 

As  an  appropriate  conclusion  to  the  fore- 
going remarks,  we  may  now  submit  a  few 
general  facts  on  the  American  Tariff  of 
duties  on  imported  merchandize.  This  has 


LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES.  227 

been  the  means  on  which  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment has  chiefly  depended  for  its  sup- 
port, ever  since  it  came  into  existence.  It 
has  also  been  amply  sufficient  for  affording 
money  to  extend  its  territory,  carry  on 
wars,  execute  treaties  and  accumulate  a 
large  property  in  lands,  buildings  and  ma- 
terials for  war.  From  the  earliest  times 
however,  the  people  have  been  divided  into 
two  great  political  parties  on  this  subject, 
and  yet  the  friends  and  opponents  of  the 
measure  have  in  the  main  admitted  that  it 
is  the  best  means  for  raising  the  public 
revenue,  inasmuch  as  direct  taxation  has 
been  thought  impolitic  for  Federal  revenue. 
There  is  a  large  class  of  people  moreover, 
who  believe  that  the  levying  of  duties  is 
detrimental  to  the  agricultural  interests. 
These,  and  numerous  questions  of  a  similar 
character,  have  long  occupied  the  minds  of 
the  leading  statesmen  of  the  United  States, 
and  they  remain  unsettled  to  this  day.  As 
the  political  parties  have  gained  ascen- 
dency, so  have  the  tariff  rates  been  changed 


228  LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES. 

or  modified,  from  time  to  time,  and  in  look- 
ing back  over  the  forty  years  prior  to  the 
late  civil  war,  we  find  that  the  rates  of  duty 
have  varied  from  eighteen  to  forty-eight 
per  centum,  and  that  the  largest  receipts 
from  customs  during  the  period  in  question 
were  in  1854,  and  amounted  to  $64,224,- 
190, — when  the  free  imports  reached 
$33,285,821,  and  the  dutiable  imports 
$271,276,560.  The  total  imports  at  the 
port  of  New  York  in  1870,  amounted  to 
$315,200,022;  and  the  exports,  to  $254,- 
137,208  ;  while  the  figures  for  all  the  States 
for  the  same  year,  were  imports,  $373,894,- 
980  and  the  exports,  $328,072,226  ;  and 
for  1869,  imports,  $463,461,427,  and  ex- 
ports, $394,644,335.  That  these  enormous 
figures  have  an  important  bearing  upon  the 
success,  or  want  of  success  of  the  factory 
system  in  the  United  States,  must  be  ap- 
parent to  all  men,  who  investigate  these 
subjects. 

In  accounting  for  the  excess  of  imports 
over  the  exports,  it  may  be  stated  that  the 


LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES.  229 

difference  arises  chiefly  from  the  importa- 
tion of  articles  of  luxury.  The  American 
people  are  practical,  and  while  they  confine 
themselves,  chiefly  to  producing  the  neces- 
saries and  comforts  of  life,  and  to  accumula- 
ting money,  they  are  quite  willing  to  obtain 
their  fashions  and  articles  of  luxury  from 
Europe.  Notwithstanding  the  immense  im- 
migration from  abroad,  the  American  people 
have  always  had  enough  to  feed  all  who 
come  to  their  shores,  and  to  provide  employ- 
ment for  all ;  and  the  strength  of  the  nation 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  spite  of  the  large 
amounts  which  are  expended  for  the  mere 
elegancies  of  life,  which  the  rich  bring  over 
from  Europe,  the  country  is  constantly 
prospering. 

But  again.  Statistics  show  that  the  trade 
of  the  United  States  has  been  regularly 
progressing,  until  interfered  with  by  the 
late  civil  war.  Generally  speaking,  the  ex- 
ports have  exceeded  the  imports,  and  the 
balance  of  trade  has  been  in  favor  of  Amer- 
ica. The  export  of  grain  does  not  depend 


230  LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES. 

upon  the  state  of  the  crops,  so  much  as  upon 
the  wants  of  other  countries.  The  great 
variety  of  the  native  productions  exported 
gives  assurance  of  the  impossibility  of  fail- 
ure of  the  resources  of  the  nation.  Figures 
also  show  that  there  is  no  industrial  pursuit 
in  which  the  people  of  the  United  States  do 
not  regularly  progress,  and  that  there  is 
little  demand  for  any  class  of  produce  which 
they  are  not  able  to  supply. 

As  the  revenue  of  the  country  depends 
in  a  great  measure  upon  the  customs  du- 
ties, so  does  its  prosperity  chiefly  depend 
upon  the  amount  of  its  exports  of  bread- 
stuffs  and  all  sorts  of  merchandize ;  but  as 
the  theories  which  have  been  brought  to 
bear  upon  this  subject  are  widely  different 
and  have  occupied  the  minds  of  the  ablest 
writers,  they  cannot  be  entered  upon  in  this 
chapter.  Upon  one  subject,  however,  all 
men  are  agreed,  viz  :  that  the  extension  of 
commerce  will  do  more  than  anything  else 
to  diffuse  the  blessings  of  civilization,  to 
bind  together  the  universal  society  of  na- 


LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES.  231 

tions,  by  sharpening,  and  at  the  same  time 
gratifying  their  mutual  wants  and  desires, 
and  to  maintain  undisturbed  that  tranquility 
so  indispensable  to  its  full  development. 

P.  S.  Since  the  foregoing  chapter  was 
sent  to  the  printer,  we  have  received  from 
the  Bureau  of  Statistics  and  the  Census 
Bureau  some  interesting  particulars  bear- 
ing upon  the  Factory,  Mechanical  and  Farm 
life  of  the  United  States,  which  ought  not 
to  be  omitted  in  this  place.  The  following 
have  reference  to  1 869.  The  hours  of  labor 
per  week  were  sixty-six;  and  omitting 
overseers,  the  average  weekly  earnings  of 
operatives  in  the  cotton  mills  was  $5.56  in 
gold.  The  wages  in  the  woolen  mills  ranged 
from  five  to  seventeen  dollars  per  week, 
including  overseers ;  in  the  paper  mills 
from  four  and  a  half  to  twenty-six  dollars  ; 
in  establishments  for  making  musical  instru- 
ments from  fifteen  to  thirty-one  dollars;  in 
foundries  and  machine  shops  from  eight  to 
twenty-four  dollars  ;  and  in  leather  estab- 


232  LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES. 

lishments  from  nine  to  twenty-five  dollars 
per  week.  In  1870,  the  average  daily 
wages  were  for  blacksmiths,  $4.85  ;  masons, 
$5.66  ;  cabinet  makers,  $4.99  ;  carpenters, 
$5.03;  coopers,  $4.30;  painters,  $5.36; 
plasterers,  $6. 51;  shoemakers,  $4.49  ;  stone 
cutters,  $6.10;  tailors,  $4.58;  tanners, 
$3.97  ;  tinsmiths,  $4.96  ;  and  wheelwrights, 
$5.37.  The  wages  for  farm  labor  in  the 
Eastern  States,  ranged  from  73  cents  to 
$1.49  per  day,  but  on  the  Pacific  States 
and  Territories  from  $1.35  to  $2.97  per 
day.  As  a  subject  of  general  interest,  we 
also  submit  a  list,  showing  the  average  re- 
tail prices,  for  the  leading  necessaries  of 
life  in  1869,  as  follows  :  Flour,  $7.36  per 
barrel ;  beef,  veal,  mutton  and  pork,  nine  to 
twenty-two  cents  per  pound;  butter,  38 
cents  per  pound  ;  dried  fish,  thirteen  to  fif- 
teen cents  per  pound  ;  potatoes  per  bushel, 
75  cents ;  rice  per  pound,  thirteen  cents ; 
beans,  eleven  cents ;  milk,  nine  cents  per 
quart ;  eggs,  29  cents  per  dozen ;  tea, 
$1.40  per  pound  ;  coffee,  28  to  35  cents  ; 


LIFE   IN   THE    FACTORIES.  233 

sugar,  fifteen  to  seventeen  cents  per  pound; 
coal,  $10.80  per  ton ;  and  wood  per  cord, 
$3.98  to  $4.98.  The  prices  for  plain  house 
rent,  ranged  from  ten  to  fifteen  dollars  per 
month ;  and  plain  board  from  $4.14  to 
$4.80  per  week.  And  finally,  for  the  want 
of  a  better  place  to  print  them,  we  submit 
the  following  aggregate  of  returns  for  the 
year  1870,  respecting  the  agricultural  re- 
sources of  the  country  : 

Acres  improved, 188,806,761 

Acres  woodland,  .  .  -.  .  .  .  .  158,908,121 
Acres  unimproved,  .  ...  .  .  59,366,633 

Cash  value  of  farms, $9,261,775,121 

Cash  value  of  agricultural  implements,  $336,890,871 
Wages  paid,  .......  .$310,068,473 

Farm  products, $2,445,602,379 

Value  of  live  stock, $1,524,271,714 

Wheat,  bushels,      .     .    .    .    .    .    .     267,730,931 

Rye,  bushels,          .,.    .    .    .    .    .       17,000,000 

Indian  corn,  bushels,  .    .    .     .    .     .     760,963,204 

Oats,  bushels,     .    .    . ....'..     282,095,996 

Barley,  bushels,      ........       29,761,267 

Buckwheat,  bushels, 9,821,662 

Rice,  pounds, 73,635,021 

Tobacco,  pounds, 262,729,640 


234  LIFE   IN   THE   FACTORIES. 

Cotton,  bales, 2,999,721 

Wool,  pounds, 102,053,264 

Potatoes,  bushels, 143,230,000 

Sweet  potatoes,  bushels, 21,634,000 

Wine,  gallons, 3,096,000 

Cheese,  pounds, 53,492,000 

Butter,  pounds, 514,002,460 

Milk,  gallons,    ........  236,500,000 

Hay,  tons,  "  .*    .  \     .    .     .     .    .     .  27,416,000 

Hops,  pounds, 28,456,669 

Sugar  (cane,)  pounds, 87,043,000 

Sugar  (maple,)  pounds, 28,443,000 

Molasses  (cane,)  gallons,      .     .     .    .  6,600,000 

Molasses  (sorghum,)  gallons,     .     .     .  16,041,000 


PART    SEVENTH. 


EDUCATIONAL  LIFE  AND    INSTI- 
TUTIONS. 


ALTHOUGH  the  cause  of  Education  in 
America  has  always  been  considered  of 
primary  interest  and  importance,  there  does 
not,  after  all,  exist  a  regular  and  uniform 
system  of  instruction.  The  diversity  of 
plans  is  almost  as  various,  as  the  several 
States  of  the  Union  are  numerous,  for  each 
State,  in  its  sovereign  capacity,  has  a  right 
to  devise  and  execute,  and  does  execute 
such  provisions  for  the  education  of  the 
people  as  are  deemed  expedient.  Setting 
aside,  therefore,  a  detailed  account  of  all 
the  existing  plans,  we  can  only  consider  in 
this  place  the  characteristics  of  the  school 
systems  of  the  States  in  their  collective 
capacity.  It  should  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  the  Federal  Government  is  a 


238     EDUCATIONAL  LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

most  liberal  patron  of  the  schools  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  and  that  a  majority  of 
the   States  have  received  large  grants  of 
land  to  be  used  for  the  support  of  educa- 
tional institutions,  and  that  they  have  ap- 
propriate officers  to  look  after,  and  expend, 
the  revenue  derived  from  the  sale  of  those 
lands.      Ten   years   ago,   the    aggregated 
amount  of  money  realized  from  the  liber- 
ality of  the  general  Government  was  about 
fifty  millions  of  dollars,  but  this  amount 
has    been  annually  increased  since  then; 
and  when  to  this  fund  we  add  the  appro- 
priations regularly  made  by  the  State  Leg- 
islatures, we  find  that  the  total  amount  of 
money  spent   for  educational   purposes  is 
truly  enormous,  and  that  in  this  particular, 
if  not  in  any  other,  the  States  of  America 
are  unequalled  by  any  other  nation.    Hence 
it  is,  that  there  is  ample  provision  made  by 
the  authorities  alone,  without  including  the 
munificent  gifts  of  private  individuals,  to 
furnish  every  child  in  the  land  with  a  good 
education,  and  the  black  race  or  Freedmen, 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.     239 

have  the  same  privileges  which  are  enjoyed 
by  the  whites.  Prior  to  the  late  Rebellion 
there  existed  no  provision  for  the  education 
of  the  colored  race,  but  as  soon  as  they  be- 
came free,  measures  were  taken  for  their 
education,  and  in  1869  the  total  number 
who  were  known  to  be  in  attendance  upon 
day,  night,  or  sunday  schools,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau,  was  up- 
wards of  250,000,  and  the  Freedmen  paid 
out  of  their  own  earnings  about  $200,000 
for  tuition  and  $125,000  for  school  build- 
ings. 

But  we  must  now  proceed  to  submit  a 
general  account  of  the  educational  systems 
of  the  United  States,  and  we  begin  with 
the  Common  Schools,  the  principle  of  which 
is  the  free  elementary  education  of  every 
child  in  the  community,  and  which  under- 
lies the  whole  intellectual  fabric  of  the 
American  Republic.  The  system  as  for- 
merly practiced,  originated  in  New  England 
at  the  commencement  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, and  was  based  upon  the  following 


240     EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

ideas  :  1,  the  instruction  of  all  the  children 
in  the  State  in  the  rudiments  of  an  English 
education,  viz — reading,  writing,  elemen- 
tary arithmetic  and  geography,  and  gram- 
mar, this  to  be  accomplished  by  schools  in 
every  district ;  2,  each  district  to  be  inde- 
pendent of  every  other  in  all  financial  mat- 
ters, and  management ;  3,  that  there  should 
be  a  superintendent  or  board  of  visitors  in 
each  town,  generally  consisting  of  profes- 
sional men  arid  especially  clergymen,  to 
examine  teachers,  inspect  the  schools,  and 
prescribe  text  books ;  4,  the  support  of 
these  schools  by  taxation;  and  5,  the  power 
of  compelling  attendance  on  the  part  of  the 
town  authorities.  After  an  experience  of 
nearly  twenty  years,  it  was  found  that  the 
condition  of  the  schools  was  not  up  to  the 
demands  of  the  time,  and  a  revival  in  the 
cause  of  education  took  place  which  result- 
ed in  greatly  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the 
old  system,  until  it  was  brought  to  a  state 
of  rare  excellence,  through  the  efforts  of 
such  men  as  Horace  Mann  and  Henry  Bar- 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS.     241 

nard.  The  school  system  was  again  regen- 
erated, and  now  possesses  all  the  elements 
of  the  highest  efficiency,  the  leading  features 
of  which  are  as  follows  :  First,  a  system  o  f 
graded  schools  for  each  town,  embracing 
primary  schools  for  the  younger  pupils ; 
grammar  schools  for  the  older,  in  which 
are  taught,  in  addition  to  the  common 
branches,  philosophy,  chemistry,  history, 
drawing,  music,  algebra,  geometry,  and  the 
French  language ;  high  schools  for  the  more 
advanced,  in  which  are  taught  the  studies 
necessary  for  a  business  education,  as  well 
as  the  languages  and  the  higher  mathema- 
tics. Secondly,  the  employment  of  regular 
visitors,  who  are  paid  for  their  services. 
Thirdly,  the  enforcement  of  uniformity  of 
text  books  and  regularity  in  attendance. 
Fourthly,  regular  and  frequent  public  ex- 
aminations. Fifthly,  the  establishment  of 
school  libraries  in  connection  with  all  the 
schools.  Sixthly,  the  introduction  of  black 
boards,  globes,  maps,  charts,  and  other  ap- 
paratus for  instruction.  Seventhly,  the  pro- 


242     EDUCATIONAL   LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

per  construction  of  school  houses.  Eighth- 
ly, the  establishment  in  every  State  of  nor- 
mal schools  for  the  instruction  of  regular 
teachers.  Ninthly,  the  organization  of 
State  associations  for  comparison  of  meth- 
ods of  teaching,  and  the  establishment  of 
school  periodicals.  And  tenthly,  the  ex- 
tension of  the  privileges  of  these  schools  to 
all  the  children  of  the  school  age  in  each 
State  either  by  supporting  the  schools  en- 
tirely by  taxation  and  the  income  of  funds 
where  they  exist,  or  by  taxation  and  small 
rate  bills,  which  are  abated  where  they  are 
unable  to  pay,  and  the  furnishing  of  neces- 
sary books  to  the  children  of  the  poor. 

That  the  above  is  a  noble  ground-work 
for  the  education  of  the  masses  must  be 
acknowledged  by  all,  and  yet  we  find  it  a 
subject  of  serious  complaint  that  the  teach- 
ers in  the  common  schools  are  not  what 
they  should  be.  In  the  great  majority  of 
cases,  they  are  said  to  be  too  young  and 
inexperienced,  and  that  both  the  young 
men  and  young  women  employed  look  upon 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS.     243 

the  office  merely  as  a  stepping-stone  to  bet- 
ter positions  or  more  agreeable  employ- 
ments, and  not  as  a  permanent  business. 
An  office  under  the  Government,  or  a  pro- 
fession, will  allure  the  young  man  from  the 
school  room ;  and  so  also,  will  an  offer  of 
marriage,  the  young  woman.  Of  course 
there  are  many  teachers  whose  knowledge, 
discipline,  and  nobleness  of  character,  emi- 
nently fit  them  for  their  responsible  posts, 
but  they  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to 
form  a  class ; — and  it  was  this  fact  which 
caused  a  prominent  writer  on  the  subject 
to  suggest  that  all  badly  managed  schools 
should  be  closed,  and  that  the  houses  should 
bear  this  inscription — "Poor  teachers  worse 
than  no  teachers."  In  the  one  particular 
to  which  we  have  alluded,  it  is  confessed 
by  leading  Americans,  that  Prussia  is  far 
in  advance  of  the  United  States.  But  not- 
withstanding this  drawback,  the  common 
schools  of  the  country  are  a  great  national 
blessing.  They  are  free  and  open  to  the 
poorest  children  in  the  community; — but 


244     EDUCATIONAL   LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

because  these  advantages  are  not  always 
accepted  by  the  people,  in  some  of  the 
States  of  the  Union,  laws  have  been  passed 
compelling  a  certain  attendance  at  school. 
The  houses  are  comfortable  and  convenient- 
ly located  in  every  district  where  they  are 
needed.  The  teachers  are  generally  intel- 
ligent and  circumspect  in  their  lives  and 
morals,  and  where  they  make  teaching  a 
regular  profession,  are  all  that  could  be 
reasonably  expected  or  desired.  With  re- 
gard to  their  compensation  there  is  no  uni- 
formity, but  it  is  estimated  to  range  from 
thirty-nine  to  fifty-seven  dollars  per  month 
for  male  teachers,  with  board,  and  from 
twenty-seven  to  thirty  dollars  per  month 
for  female  teachers,  with  board.  But,  per- 
haps a  better  idea,  on  this  head,  may  be 
obtained  by  looking  at  the  average  of  the 
annual  salaries  which  have  recently  been 
paid  in  some  of  the  leading  cities,  as  follows: 
Boston,  $798  ;  Cincinnati,  $769  ;  New  Ha- 
van,$577;  New  York,  $649  ;  New  Orleans, 
$675;  Philadelphia,  $415;  San  Francisco, 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.     245 

$829 ;  and  Washington,  $507.  Nor  is  there, 
as  we  have  already  stated,  any  uniformity 
in  the  management  of  the  schools  by  the 
State  authorities,  and  so  with  a  view  of  at- 
tempting to  give  a  general  idea  of  their 
condition,  we  submit  the  following  figures 
in  regard  to  four  of  the  representative 
States  of  the  Republic  : — The  number  of 
scholars  who  attend  school  in  the  small 
State  of  Connecticut  is  124,000 — amount 
expended  in  1870  for  school  purposes,  $1,- 
269,152,  and  its  school  fund  is  $2,046,108; 
in  New  York  there  are  1,000,000  children 
in  the  common  schools,  and  120,000  in  the 
private  schools, — the  school  houses  are  val- 
ued at  $20,500,000,  the  amount  paid  to 
teachers  is  $6,500,000,  amount  expended 
in  1870  for  instruction  nearly  $10,000,000, 
and  the  school  fund  is  $11,300,000;  in 
Pennsylvania,  the  scholars  are  900,753, 
schools  14,212,  teachers  17,612,  school 
property  $14,045,632,  and  annual  expenses 
about  $7,000.000 ;  and  in  Ohio  the  schol- 
ars are  740.382,  and  the  school  expendi- 


246     EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

tures  in  1870  amounted  to  $7,771,761. 
Total  amount  of  school  fund  in  all  the  States 
is  estimated  at  fifty  millions  of  dollars. 
We  give  no  figures  in  regard  to  any  of  the 
Southern  States,  first,  because  the  system 
of  common  schools  has  never  flourished  in 
that  region  of  the  country,  and  secondly, 
because  the  late  war  has  so  deranged  all 
public  matters  in  those  States,  that  no 
statements  at  this  time  would  do  them  full 
justice.  Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been 
done  in  the  United  States  for  the  cause  of 
Education,  it  has  been  estimated  that  the 
illiterate  people  of  the  country  number 
about  six  millions. 

With  regard  to  the  much  discussed  sub- 
ject of  the  Bible  in  common  schools,  we 
may  submit  the  following  remarks  by  a  dis- 
tinguished professor  of  Harvard  University: 
"To  banish  the  Bible,  was  to  garble  history, 
for  there  was  much  history,  of  which  it  was 
the  only  source.  Christianity  is  the  great 
factor  in  the  history  of  the  world.  If  moral 
philosophy  is  to  be  taught,  it  must  be  chris- 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.     247 

tian  ethics.  For  the  culture  of  the  taste 
and  imagination,  the  Bible  transcends  all 
other  literature.  Our  English  Bible  has 
rendered  important  service  in  preserving 
our  language.  It  is  the  key  to  the  best 
English  diction  and  has  helped  to  form  the 
diction  of  every  child.  Our  children  should 
not  be  kept  in  ignorance  of  the  fact  that 
we  are  a  Christian  people.  Sectarian  relig- 
ion should  be  excluded;  but  this  can  be 
done  only  by  giving  an  unsectarian  book, 
and  the  Bible  is  such  a  book.  The  Roman 
Catholics,  in  opposing  the  introduction  of 
the  Bible  in  common  schools,  do  not  so 
much  object  to  the  book  itself,  but  rather 
desire  that  the  school  funds  should  be  sep- 
arated, which  course,  the  Protestants  think 
would  be  detrimental  to  the  welfare  of  the 
whole  system." 

With  a  view  of  enhancing  the  efficiency 
of  the  common  schools  in  the  United  States, 
there  have  been  organized,  within  the  last 
few  years,  a  large  number  of  Normal  schools, 
the  sole  object  of  which  is  to  educate  a  class 


248     EDUCATIONAL   LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

of  persons  solely  for  the  business  of  teach- 
ing, whereby  very  great  good  has  already 
been  accomplished  in  elevating  the  tone  of 
instruction.  At  the  present  time  there  are 
fifty  of  these  schools  in  successful  operation 
in  the  Northern  States,  which  are  supported 
by  the  City  or  State  governments,  and  not 
less  than  thirty  in  the  Southern  States,  for 
the  benefit  of  the  freedmen ; — and  the  num- 
ber of  teachers  already  educated  by  them, 
including  males  and  females,  is  estimated 
at  two  hundred  thousand,  and  the  pupils 
now  being  instructed  about  nine  thousand. 
While  there  is  no  special  uniformity  in  the 
management  of  these  schools,  we  may  ob- 
tain a  general  idea  of  their  character  by 
glancing  at  the  features  of  a  single  one  of 
them  which  has  been  particularly  success- 
ful, viz — the  Normal  University  of  Illinois. 
Candidates  for  admission  to  this  institution, 
whether  male  or  female,  must  have  attained 
the  age  of  sixteen ;  must  produce  certificates 
of  good  moral  character;  must  sign  a  declar- 
ation that  they  intend  to  devote  themselves 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS.     249. 

to  school-teaching  in  Illinois ;  and  must  pass 
a  satisfactory  examination  in  reading,  spell- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  the 
elements  of  English  grammar.  The  neces- 
sary annual  expenses,  for  each  pupil,  range 
from  ninety-seven  to  one  hundred  and 
eighty-eight  dollars.  There  are  five  profes- 
sors, and  the  term  of  study  is  the  usual  one 
of  three  years :  and  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion embraces  the  following  subjects  :  Met- 
aphysics; history  and  methods  of  educa- 
tion ;  constitution  of  the  State  and  the  Uni- 
ted States ;  school  laws;  English  language; 
arithmetic;  algebra;  geometry;  natural 
philosophy ;  book-keeping ;  geography ;  his- 
tory; astronomy;  chemistry;  botony;  phys- 
iology; geology;  vocal  music;  and  writing 
and  drawing.  The  total  number  of  pupils 
is  three  hundred ;  and  there  is  an  append- 
age to  the  institution  called  a  model  school, 
which  contains  five  hundred  pupils,  whose 
tuition  is  free,  although  they  have  to  sup- 
port themselves.  While  the  Americans 
confess  that  their  common  schools  are  not 


250     EDUCATIONAL  LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

equal  in  efficiency  to  those  of  some  other 
countries,  they  claim  that  this  state  of 
things  cannot  continue,  and  that  their  Nor- 
mal schools,  as  at  present  organized,  are 
unsurpassed. 

Before  an  American  youth  can  pass  from 
a  common  school  into  a  college,  he  is  obliged 
to  go  through  a  course  of  studies,  in  what 
is  called  a  High  School  or  Academy.  These 
institutions  are  exceedingly  varied  in  char- 
acter, quite  numerous,  independent  in  or- 
ganization, and  very  frequently  originate 
in  the  liberality  of  private  individuals.  Al- 
though the  instruction  afforded  by  them  is 
not  gratuitous,  the  expenses  are  generally 
moderate.  In  some  of  them,  however,  pro- 
vision is  made  by  public  appropriations  for 
the  education  of  such  pupils  as  are  too  poor 
to  pay.  It  often  happens,  however,  that 
when  young  men  are  about  to  leave  the 
academy,  or  High  School,  they  conclude 
that  their  education  has  been  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced for  all  practical  purposes,  and  so  re- 
linquish the  idea  of  passing  through  college. 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS.     251 

And  here,  before  describing  the  Colleges 
and  Universities  of  America,  we  may  with 
propriety  allude  to  the  present  condition  of 
the  miscellaneous  schools  of  the  country. 
Of  distinct  schools  of  Science,  unconnected 
with  colleges,  there  are  none  of  any  import- 
ance ;  but  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School, 
which  forms  a  part  of  Yale  College,  and 
the  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  connected 
with  Harvard  University,  are  both  flourish- 
ing institutions,  and  are  doing  much  to  meet 
the  wants  of  the  age ;  while  there  are  de- 
partments, standing  on  nearly  the  same 
basis,  belonging  to  Brown  University,  Rut- 
gers College,  and  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan. As  to  Industrial  Schools,  there  is 
also  a  great  dearth  of  these  in  the  United 
States ;  especially  is  this  true  in  regard  to 
Engineering,  and  Navigation  ;  and  about  all 
that  is  accomplished  in  the  country,  in  the 
way  of  art  instruction,  is  accomplished  by 
the  National  Academy  and  Cooper  Insti- 
tute of  New  York,  the  Athenaeum  in  Bos- 
ton, the  Academy  of  Arts  in  Philadelphia, 


252     EDUCATIONAL   LIFE  AND   INSTITUTIONS, 

and  the  Peabody   Institute  in  Baltimore. 
In  Massachusetts,  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania, they  have  Institutions  of  Technol- 
ogy :  in  California,  a  College  of  Mining  and 
the  Mechanic  Arts,  associated  with  Agri- 
culture ;  and  attached  to  Columbia  College, 
in  New  York,  they  have  a  School  of  Mines. 
As  to  the  advantages  afforded  by  Agricul- 
tural  Colleges,   they   are   quite  numerous, 
and  well-endowed   institutions   are  to   be 
found  in  the  States  of  Delaware,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Maine, 
Maryland,  Massachusetts,  (where  there  are 
several  Japanese  students,)  Michigan,  Min- 
nesota, New  Hampshire,  Pennsylvania,  Ver- 
mont, West  Virginia  and  Wisconsin.     In 
none    of   the    public    schools    of  America 
are  the  foundation  principles  of  commerce 
taught,  and  hence  there  have  been  estab- 
lished by  private  individuals  what  is  called 
a  "  Chain  of  Commercial  Colleges  ;" — they 
number  not  less  than  forty,  and  extend  from 
Maine  to  Louisiana ;  their  course  of  instruc- 
tion is  very  complete,  and  covers  all  that 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.     253 

is  necessary  for  a  commercial  life  ;  and  be- 
cause this  association  is  under  one  head, 
the  regulations  are  such,  that  a  student,  af- 
ter completing  a  course  of  studies  in  one, 
may  again  take  them  up  and  pursue  them 
at  another  school  of  the  Chain,  without  ad- 
ditional expense.  With  regard  to  the  theo- 
logical institutions,  they  have  already  been 
mentioned  in  a  previous  part  of  this  volume ; 
and  on  a  page  which  is  to  follow,  we  shall 
speak  of  the  Army  and  Navy  Schools  of  the 
country.  The  only  Schools  remaining  to 
be  mentioned  under  this  miscellaneous  head 
are  those  devoted  to  the  study  of  Medicine 
and  Law.  The  Medical  Colleges  and  Schools 
of  the  country  number  fifty -one,  and,  first 
and  last,  as  a  competent  writer  has  said, 
there  have  stood  at  the  head  of  them,  men 
of  learning,  genius,  and  eminent  distinction. 
And  so,  there  have  also  been  in  the  ranks 
of  the  profession,  many  physicians  and  sur- 
geons of  great  ability  and  skill.  But  hard- 
ly any  one,  who  is  acquainted  with  the 
status  of  medical  education  in  America,  will 


254     EDUCATIONAL  LIFE  AND  INSTITUTIONS. 

claim  that  either  the  distinguished  profes- 
sor, author'or  practitioner,  has  owed  his  suc- 
cess, in  any  considerable  degree,  to  the 
training  of  the  schools ;  for,  as  compared 
with  the  European  standard,  the  training 
in  America  has  been  unsatisfactory  to  the 
last  degree.  The  Law  Schools  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  number  twenty-two ;  and  it  is 
said  that,  in  at  least  one  respect,  they  are 
superior  to  those  of  England  : — in  that,  what 
tliey  assume  to  do  at  all,  they  do  more  tho- 
roughly and  well.  But  it  is  no  less  true, 
that  they  undertake  very  little  in  compari- 
son with  what  is  both  attempted  and  ac- 
complished in  several  of  the  European  coun- 
tries. In  the  form  of  departments,  there 
are  schools  of  law  connected  with  many  of 
the  leading  colleges ;  and  in  all  of  them  the 
term  of  study  is  two  years,  the  courses  of 
instruction  being  so  arranged  that  a  com- 
plete view  is  given  during  each  year  of  the 
subjects  embraced  within  it.  The  profes- 
sors number  from  one  to  five  in  each  of  these 
schools ;  a  majority  of  them,  in  many  in- 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.      255 

stances,  being  judges  of  the  Supreme  Courts 
and  resident  lawyers  in  regular  practice, 
whose  services  are  gratuitous  or  partially 
compensated.     The  terms  of  admission  are 
simply  good  morals  and  the  age  of  eighteen 
years,  and  the  fees,  payable  in  advance, 
amount  to  one  hundred  dollars.     The  law- 
yers of  the  United   States,  as    heretofore 
mentioned,  have  much  to  do  with  the  mak- 
ing of  the  national  laws,  and  the  affairs  of 
the  General  Government ;  and  a  competent 
American  critic  has  said — how  few  of  them 
have  been  students  of  political  economy,  of 
civil   polity,  and  of  universal   history,  is 
painfully  manifest  from  the  legislative  dis- 
cussions they  hold,  and  the  laws  they  enact. 
We  come  now  to  speak,  in  general  terms, 
of  the  Collegiate  Institutions  of  the  United 
States,  known   as  Universities,    Colleges, 
Seminaries  and  Institutes,  and  which  num- 
ber in  the  aggregate  not  less  than  two  hun- 
dred and  eighty-five, — exclusive  of  eighty- 
two,  in  which  theology  is  alone  studied. 
While  their  courses  of  instruction  embrace 


256     EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

all  branches  of  learning,  it  is  almost  invari- 
ably the  case  that  something  like  a  secta- 
rian element  pervades  each  institution,  the 
only  exceptions  to  this  rule  being  those 
which  are  supported  by  the  State  Govern- 
ments. The  number  of  institutions  in  Amer- 
ica, bearing  the  title  of  university,  is  larger 
than  in  any  other  country,  and  a  less  num- 
ber of  them  is  said  to  have  really  any  sort 
of  claim  to  the  title.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  several  Colleges  which,  though 
bearing  that  more  modest  name,  are  really 
entitled  to  be  called  universities.  And 
then  again  there  are  Seminaries  and  Insti- 
tutes, which  would  seem,  from  their  extent 
.and  high  character,  to  be  worthy  of  being 
called  Colleges.  The  precise  meaning  of 
the  term  University,  is  a  universal  school, 
in  which  are  taught  all  branches  of  learn- 
ing, or  the  four  faculties  of  theology,  medi- 
cine, law,  and  the  sciences  and  arts;  a 
College  is  a  school  incorporated  for  purposes 
of  instruction,  where  the  students  may  ac- 
quire a  knowledge  of  the  languages  and 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.     257 

sciences;  the  idea  of  a  Seminary  or  an 
Academy,  is  allied  to  that  of  a  college,  only 
that  the  former  are  more  especially  designed 
for  a  younger  class  of  students ;  and  an  In- 
stitute is  a  literary  or  philosophical  society, 
formed  by  persons  for  their  mutual  instruc- 
tion and  advantage  in  all  matters  connected 
with  intellectual  culture.  The  so-called 
Universities  of  America  number  one  hun- 
dred, while  the  other  collegiate  institutions 
are  about  equally  divided  between  the  three 
remaining  classes.  To  give  an  account  of 
all,  is  of  course  not  to  be  expected  in  this 
paper,  but  the  reader  may  obtain  a  general 
idea  of  their  character  by  glancing  at  a  few 
of  the  more  influential  and  prominent  insti- 
tutions. 

Harvard  College,  located  at  Cambridge, 
in  Massachusetts,  and  founded  in  1636,  is 
the  oldest  institution  of  learning  in  A  mer- 
ica.  It  has  twenty-eight  professors  and 
about  five  hundred  students ;  and  although 
it  has  hitherto  had  a  Liberal  divinity  school, 
.arrangements  have  recently  been  made  for 


258     EDUCATIONAL    LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

incorporating  in  it  an  "  Episcopal  Theolog- 
ical School."  It  has  a  Law  department 
with  three  professors ;  a  Medical  depart- 
ment with  eleven  professors ;  a  School 
of  Astronomy  with  two  professors;  a  Den- 
tal school  with  seven  professors ;  a  Muse- 
um of  Zoology  with  lectures  by  four  pro- 
fessors ;  and  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School 
and  School  of  Mining  and  Practical  Geol- 
ogy with  seven  professors.  Its  general  and 
special  libraries  comprise  one  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  volumes,  and  its  scientific 
collections  are  extensive  and  of  great  value. 
It  is  managed  by  one  President,  five  Fel- 
lows, and  one  Treasurer,  and  by  thirty  over- 
seers chosen  by  the  State  Legislature ;  its 
endowment  fund,  derived  from  numerous 
individuals  and  corporations,  and  indepen- 
dent of  the  college  grounds,  buildings,  libra- 
ries and  collections,  is  somewhat  over  two 
millions  of  dollars ;  and  its  annual  income 
is  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
dollars.  The  term  of  study  in  the  law 
school  is  two  years  ;  in  the  divinity  school, 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS.     259 

three;  and  candidates  for  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  medicine,  must  have  studied  three 
years,  and  attended  two  courses  of  lectures. 
The  next  oldest  institution  of  learning 
in  America  is  Yale  College,  founded  at  New 
Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1700.  It  has  about 
sixty  professors,  and  usually  seven  hundred 
students.  Besides  an  Academical  depart- 
ment, it  has  five  others,  devoted  to  philos- 
ophy, theology,  law,  medicine,  and  the  fine 
arts.  Its  miscellaneous  collections  are  ex- 
tensive and  very  valuable,  and  its  libraries 
comprise  about  eighty-five  thousand  vol- 
umes. The  total  amount  of  its  funds  avail- 
able for  the  support  of  the  college  is  some- 
thing over  one  million  of  dollars.  This  col- 
lege differs  from  Harvard  chiefly  in  the  con- 
stitution of  its  department  of  philosophy 
and  the  arts,  which  has  come  to  be  known 
as  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School.  Candi- 
dates for  admission  are  obliged  to  be  six- 
teen years  of  age,  and  to  undergo  a  two-fold 
examination — first  in  mathematical  studies, 
and  secondly  in  elementary  literary  studies. 


260     EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND    INSTITUTIONS. 

The  charge  for  tuition  is  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  dollars,  but  students  of  chemis- 
try have  to  pay  an  additional  sum  of  sev- 
enty-five dollars.  The  term  of  study  in 
each  of  the  courses  is  three  years ;  and  in 
the  divinity  school  no  charge  is  made  for 
tuition. 

Another  college  of  note  and  influence  is 
Columbia  College,  founded  in  the  city  of 
New  York  in  1754,  but  prior  to  1787  it 
was  known  as  King's  College.  Its  funds, 
derived  chiefly  from  donations,  amount  to 
two  millions  of  dollars ;  its  professors  about 
fifty,  and  the  usual  number  of  students  is 
nine  hundred.  It  has  four  departments, 
devoted  to  Letters  and  Science,  Mines,  Law, 
and  Medicine.  The  charges  for  tuition 
range  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and 
sixty  dollars  per  annum ;  several  societies 
and  municipal  corporations  are  entitled  to 
several  scholarships  free  of  charge ;  every 
religious  denomination  in  the  city  of  New 
York  is  entitled  always  to  have  one  student 
free  of  all  charges  for  tuition;  and  every 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.     261 

school  from  which  there  shall  be  admitted 
four  matriculants  in  any  year,  is  also  allow- 
ed to  send  one  pupil  free  of  charge. 

The  College  of  New  Jersey,  located  at 
Princeton,  is  another  of  the  venerable  insti- 
tutions of  the  United  States.  It  was  foun- 
ded in  1746  ;  has  about  twenty  professors, 
and  nearly  three  hundred  students;  is  sup- 
ported by  the  Presbyterians,  and  has  edu- 
cated nearly  nine  hundred  men  for  the  Min- 
istry ;  charges  a  tuition  fee  of  seventy  dol- 
lars ;  and  has  a  choice  library  of  twenty- 
five  thousand  volumes.  In  Georgetown, 
District  of  Columbia,  there  is  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic College,  founded  in  1792,  with  twenty 
professors,  two  hundred  students,  and  a 
library  of  thirty  thousand  volumes;  in 
Brunswick,  Maine,  is  located  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege, founded  in  1802,  and  possessing  a 
library  of  thirty-seven  thousand  volumes ; 
in  New  Hampshire  they  have  Dartmouth 
College,  founded  in  1769,  supported  by  the 
Congregationalists,  and  with  thirty-eight 
thousand  volumes  in  its  library  ;  in  Penn- 


262     EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

sylvania,  Dickinson  College,  founded  in 
1783,  supported  by  the  Methodists,  and 
with  twenty-five  thousand  volumes ;  in 
Rhode  Island,  Brown  University,  founded 
in  1764,  supported  by  the  -Baptists,  and 
having  a  library  of  thirty-eight  thousand 
volumes ;  and  in  Virginia,  a  State  Univer- 
sity, founded  in  1819,  with  thirty-five  thou- 
sand volumes.  But  these  several  institu- 
tions, which  have  more  recently  been  found- 
ed, and  which  are  growing  with  great  rap- 
idity and  exercising  a  paramount  influence 
in  the  educational  world,  viz  :  the  Univer- 
sities of  Michigan,  Kentucky,  and  Illinois, 
and  the  Cornell  University  in  New  York. 
But  there  is  another  institution  which  de- 
serves special  mention,  because  of  its  ex- 
tent and  peculiar  character,  viz  :  Vassar 
College,  located  at  Poughkeepsie,  New  York. 
It  was  founded  in  18-61  through  the  liber- 
ality of  one  man,  Matthew  Yassar,  and  is 
wholly  devoted  to  the  education  of  women. 
The  buildings  are  extensive  and  beautiful; 
the  school  offers  the  highest  educational 


EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS.     263 

facilities  to  females  at  moderate  expense, 
and  admits  as  beneficiaries  those  who  are 
unable  to  pay  even  that  expense.  Special 
attention  is  devoted  to  the  fine  arts,  and  it 
has  a  corps  of  instructors  in  the  English 
language  and  literature,  the  modern  lan- 
guages of  Europe  and  their  literature,  an- 
cient languages,  mathematics,  all  the  branch- 
es of  natural  science,  including  anatomy, 
physiology,  hygiene,  intellectual  and  moral 
philosophy,  political  economy  and  the  sci- 
ence of  government,  domestic  economy,  and 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  without  secta- 
rianism. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  educa- 
tional records  of  the  United  States  are  very 
complete,  and  the  amount  of  money  annu- 
ally expended  in  the  cause  is  very  large, 
it  would  seem  that  the  requirements  of  the 
age  and  of  America  have  not  as  yet  by  any 
means  been  attained.  An  American  writer, 
in  an  elaborate  report  on  this  subject,  pub- 
lished at  the  National  expense,  has  summed 
up  his  opinions  in  a  single  paragraph,  as 


264     EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

follows :  To  tell  the  plain  truth,  he  says, 
the  very  best  of  our  many  universities  are 
but  sorry  skeletons  of  the  well-developed 
and  shapely  institutions  they  ought  to  be 
and  must  become,  before  they  will  be  fairly 
entitled  to  rank  among  the  foremost  univer- 
sities of  even  this  present  day.  And  if  we 
are  not  content  always  to  suffer  the  con- 
tempt of  European  scholars,  who  properly 
enough  regard  us  as  a  very  clever,  but  also 
a  very  uncultured,  people,  it  is  time  that 
all  true  lovers  of  learning,  as  well  as  all 
who  desire  the  highest  prosperity  and  glory 
of  America,  should  awake  to  the  importance 
of  at  once  providing  the  means  of  a  pro- 
founder,  broader,  and  higher  culture  in 
every  department  of  human  learning. 

As  the  education  of  women  is  a  subject 
which  possesses  a  peculiar  interest  for  the 
people  of  Japan,  we  here  submit  a  few 
observations  in  that  connection.  In  Amer- 
ica, females  possess  precisely  the  same  ad- 
vantages for  education  that  are  possessed 
by  the  males.  Boys  and  girls  are  admitted 


EDUCATIONAL  LIFE  AND  INSTITUTIONS.     265 

to  the  same  schools ;  and  the  gentle  influ- 
ences of  the  latter  are  counterbalanced  by 
the    elevating    influences    of    the   former, 
whereby  it  is  thought  that  both  classes  are 
improved.     At  the  same  time,   there  are 
thousands  of  schools  in  which  the  two  sexes 
are  instructed  separately.     The  idea  is  uni- 
versal that  the  women  of  the   country  are 
capable  of  receiving,  and  should  receive  the 
highest  kind  of  education ;  and  as  to  the 
question  of  their  right  to  take  part  in  poli- 
tics, by  voting,  which  has  been  extensively 
discussed  in  America,  it  seems  to  be  one 
of  those  problems  which  the  future  alone 
can  establish.     The  important  part  which 
the  women  of  America  take  in  educational 
affairs  is  shown  by  the  following  facts, — 
that  they  are  educated  at  the  Normal  schools 
for  the  express  purpose  of  becoming  teach- 
ers,— that  they  officiate  as  teachers  in  thou- 
sands of  the  common  schools, — that  Semi- 
naries for  the  education  of  young  ladies  are 
to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  country, — 
that  they  are  admitted  into  several  of  the 


266     EDUCATIONAL   LIFE   AND   INSTITUTIONS. 

American  Colleges  as  regular  students,  and 
that  a  number  of  institutions  of  the  highest 
character  are  exclusively  devoted  to  the 
education  of  women,  the  most  extensive  and 
interesting,  Vassar  College,  having  already 
been  mentioned.  Not  only  are  the  libraries 
of  the  country  regularly  visited  and  used  by 
ladies,  (in  some  of  which  they  are  employed 
as  librarians,)  but  in  the  leading  cities  are 
to  be  found  libraries  and  reading  rooms, 
designed  for  their  use  exclusively,  and  all 
of  them  in  harmony  with  the  idea  of  Amer- 
ican civilization. 


PART   EIGHTII. 


LITERARY,  ARTISTIC  AND  SCIEN- 
TIFIC LIFE. 


UNDER  the  head  of  literary  life,  we  pro- 
pose to  submit  some  information  on  the 
book-publishing  and  newspaper  interests  of 
the  United  States.  When  an  author  has 
written  a  book,  whether  large  or  small,  and 
desires  to  profit  by  its  publication,  he  is 
obliged  to  take  out  a  copy-right,  by  which 
the  Government  promises  to  protect  his 
rights,  for  a  term  of  years,  in  the  profits  of 
the  work,  as  his  own  property.  The  doc- 
ument in  question  is  issued,  under  the  law, 
by  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  and  two  copies 
of  every  book  or  pamphlet  published,  have 
to  be  deposited  in  the  National  Library, 
whereby  the  collection  of  volumes  belong- 
ing to  the  Government,  is  annually  increased 


270     LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE. 

to  a  large  extent.  The  books  printed  and 
the  authors  who  write  them,  are  so  nume- 
rous that  it  would  be  quite  impossible  even 
to  name  them  in  this  place.  The  best  and 
most  comprehensive  work  ever  published 
on  the  authors  who  have  written  in  the 
English  language,  was  written  by  an  Amer- 
ican, named  S.  Austin  Allibone  ;  it  is  called 
a  "Dictionary  of  Authors,"  and  contains  the 
names  of  not  less  than  forty-six  thousand 
authors,  with  an  account  of  their  publica- 
tions. 

As  to  the  subjects  upon  which  books  are 
written,  they  are  of  course  very  numerous, 
the  general  heads  under  which  they  are 
arranged  being  as  follows :  Theology  and 
Religion,  Poetry,  History,  Biography,  Geo- 
graphy and  Travels,  Philosophy,  Science, 
Social  Reform,  School  Books,  Useful  and 
Fine  Arts,  Fiction,  Literature,  Miscellane- 
ous Books,  Republications  and  Translations 
from  Foreign  authors.  With  many  men, 
as  well  as  women,  the  writing  of  books  is 
a  special  business,  and  then  again  there  are 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.     271 

thousands  of  books  written  merely  as  a  pas- 
time by  their  authors,  or  from  motives  of 
personal  vanity;  generally  speaking,  the 
writers  do  not  find  the  business  profitable ; 
but  then  again,  there  are  authors  who  make 
a  great  deal  of  money  by  writing — espe- 
cially is  this  the  case  with  school  books, 
novels,  and  national  histories.  The  men 
who  print  and  sell  the  books,  which  are 
written,  are  called  publishers,  and  in  all  the 
principal  cities  are  to  be  found  establish- 
ments which  do  business  on  a  very  large 
scale.  Some  of  them  give  employment  to 
large  numbers  of  people,  such  as  writers, 
paper  makers,  printers,  binders,  artists  of 
various  kinds  and  machinists,  as  well  as 
clerks  and  common  workmen,  and  not  a  few 
have  acquired  very  large  fortunes  by  this 
branch  of  industry.  They  usually  sell 
books  by  the  quantity  alone,  and  the  retail 
merchants,  who  purchase  of  them,  are  to 
be  found  in  every  town  and  village  in  the 
whole  land.  When  an  author  has  written 
a  book,  he  either  sells  his  copy-right  to  the 


272     LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE. 

publisher  for  a  specific  sum  of  money,  after 
which  he  has  nothing  to  do  with  his  work, 
or  else,  he  allows  the  publisher  the  privi- 
lege of  printing  and  selling  his  book,  charg- 
ing for  the  same  a  certain  per  centum  on 
the  price  of  each  volume,  retaining  the 
ownership  of  the  work  in  his  own  name. 
While  many  of  the  books  published  are  so 
interesting  or  valuable  as  to  be  purchased 
by  everybody  interested  in  the  subject, 
very  many  of  them  can  only  be  sold  by 
means  of  extravagant  notices  in  the  news- 
papers, and  hence  the  custom  prevails  of 
sending  most  of  all  the  new  books  to  the 
newspapers,  which  pretend  to  give  impar- 
tial notices,  but  often  do  the  very  reverse. 
The  custom  of  reading  books  among  the 
people  of  America  is  almost  universal,  far 
more  so,  it  is  said,  than  is  the  case  in  Eng- 
land or  France ;  and  in  every  home,  from 
that  of  the  rich  merchant,  down  to  the 
poorest  farmer,  may  generally  be  found 
such  collections  of  books  as  they  desire  or 
can  afford  to  buy.  And  for  those  who  can 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.     273 

not  afford  to  purchase  all  they  may  wish  to 
read,  in  the  cities  and  towns  everywhere, 
they  have  circulating  libraries,  where  for  a 
small  consideration,  books  may  be  read,  or 
borrowed,  to  be  read,  at  home.  In  most  of 
the  leading  cities,  collections  of  this  sort, 
have  been  established  which  are  very  ex- 
tensive and  valuable.  The  good  which 
these  libraries  accomplish  by  furnishing  the 
people  with  information  on  every  conceiv- 
able subject,  cannot  be  estimated; — the 
money  which  some  of  them  have  cost  would 
reach  a  million  of  dollars ;  and  the  largest 
in  the  country,  which  is  called  the  National 
Library,  and  located  in  Washington  City, 
contains  not  less  than  two  hundred  thousand 
volumes,  and  is  entirely  free  to  all  who  may 
desire  to  consult  its  treasures.  In  1860, 
there  were  27,730  libraries  in  the  country, 
in  which  were  collected  nearly  fourteen 
millions  of  volumes. 

But  the  most  striking  feature  connected 
with  the  literature  of  America,  is  the  uni- 
versal circulation  of  newspapers  and  maga- 


274      LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE. 

zines  which  are  read  by  all  classes  of  the 
people,  and  so  conducted  as  to  form,  to  a 
great  extent,  a  substitute  for  books.  Ac- 
cording to  the  latest  accounts,  the  whole 
number  of  periodicals  issued  in  the  United 
States  and  its  Territories  is  6,056;  of  these 
637  are  published  daily;  118  tri-weekly ; 
129  semi-weekly;  4642  weekly;  21  bi- 
weekly; 100  semi-monthly;  715  monthly; 
14  bi-monthly ;  and  62  are  issued  quarter- 
ly. Of  this  large  number  it  is  estimated 
that  about  four-fifths  are  political  journals, 
the  remainder  being  religious  or  literary. 
It  is  through  these  numerous  publications 
that  the  mind  of  the  nation  is  chiefly  ex- 
pressed, and  its  intellectual  pulse  may  gen- 
erally be  measured,  by  the  success  of  the 
several  journals.  While  very  many  of  thes  e 
have  a  circulation,  which  is  confined  to  their 
particular  religious  sect  or  political  party, 
there  are  a  few  whose  circulation  is  im- 
mense, and  their  influence  proportionably 
extensive.  For  example,  there  is  one  week- 
ly paper  published  in  New  York,  which  has 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE,     275 

a  circulation  of  175,000,  and  if  we  estimate 
that  each  paper  is  read  by  five  persons, 
which  is  not  unlikely,  we  perceive,  that 
each  issue  has  the  teaching  of  875,000 
minds ;  and  then  again,  there  are  some 
daily  papers,  which  issue  every  morning 
from  one  hundred  thousand  to  two  hundred 
thousand  copies.  As  far  back  as  1860,  it 
was  estimated  that  the  circulation  of  the 
newspapers  alone  amounted  to  100,000,000. 
Hence  we  perceive  that  the  power  of  the 
Press  is  enormous,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  it  should  be  con- 
ducted with  honesty  and  wisdom.  That 
portion  of  it  which  comes  under  the  head 
of  newspapers,  is  by  far  the  most  profitable, 
so  far  as  making  money  is  concerned,  but 
the  profit  does  not  come  from  selling  the 
paper  alone.  In  all  of  them  certain  columns 
or  pages  are  filled  up  with  advertisements, 
and  as  these  are  paid  for  on  liberal  terms, 
they  become  a  source  of  profit.  The  own- 
ership of  these  papers  is  generally  vested 
in  a  company  of  men,  who  are  the  printers 


276     LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC    LIFE. 

and  publishers ;  and  as  some  of  these  great 
establishments  send  forth  books,  as  well  as 
newspapers  and  periodicals,  we  can  only 
obtain  an  idea  of  the  extent  of  their  busi- 
ness by  resorting  to  figures.  According  to 
the  latest  published  statements  the  capital 
invested  in  printing  and  publishing  is  about 
$20,000,000;  cost  of  raw  material  used, 
$13,000,000 ;  cost  of  labor  per  annum  about 
$8,000,000;  number  of  hands  employed 
more  than  20,000  ;  and  the  value  of  books, 
periodicals,  and  daily  journals  nearly  $32,- 
000,000.  With  these  figures  before  us,  we 
cannot  wonder  that  what  is  called  the  Press 
of  America  should  be  considered  an  element 
of  almost  incalculable  power.  As  has  well 
been  said,  it  records  with  fidelity  the  pro- 
ceedings of  Congress,  of  all  State  and  Ter- 
ritorial Legislatures,  and  of  Judicial  tribu- 
nals, holds  the  pulpit  to  a  just  responsibili- 
ty, reviews  the  doings  of  business  and  social 
life,  and  watches  with  sleepless  vigilence 
over  the  concerns  of  the  people.  It  is  the 
great  representative  of  the  people,  a  conser- 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC    LIFE.     277 

vative  power  held  by  them  to  guard  both 
public  and  industrial  liberty ; — reflecting 
their  opinions  and  judgments  in  all  matters 
respecting  the  public  weal,  exposing  wrong, 
and  vindicating  and  encouraging  the  right. 
In  writing  for  the  newspapers  of  America, 
many  of  the  ablest  men  are  employed,  and 
the  leading  writer  for  each  journal  is  called 
an  Editor.  He  is  frequently  the  sole  pro- 
prietor, sometimes  only  owns  a  few  shares 
in  the  enterprise,  and  then  again  he  may 
be  hired  to  perform  a  specific  editorial  duty. 
He  is  responsible  for  the  opinions  expressed, 
and  when  necessary,  as  is  always  the  case 
in  the  larger  establishments,  he  is  assisted 
in  his  labors  by  sub-editors,  who  look  after 
all  matters  connected  with  commerce  or 
literature;  by  reporters,  who  prepare  the 
proceedings  of  public  assemblies ;  and  by 
correspondents,  who  furnish  information  on 
every  subject  of  public  interest.  Weekly 
papers  are  commonly  published  on  Saturday 
of  each  week,  and  daily  papers  in  the  morn- 
ing or  evening ;  and  as  most  of  the  latest 


278     LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC    LIFE. 

news  is  received  through  the  telegraph,  it 
is  frequently  the  case  that  an  evening  pa- 
per will  publish  information  of  an  event 
which  may  have  taken  place  in  Europe,  on 
the  morning  of  the  same  day.  With  regard 
to  what  is  called  the  liberty  of  the  press, 
in  times  of  peace,  it  is  quite  unbounded ; 
so  much  so,  indeed,  that  the  rights  of  pri- 
vate citizens  are  not  always  respected ;  but 
while  an  editor  may  not  be  interfered  with 
by  the  Government,  for  expressing  his 
opinions,  provided  they  are  not  immoral,  it 
is  too  often  the  case  that  his  real  indepen- 
dence is  materially  affected  by  the  allure- 
ments or  dictation  of  the  political  party  to 
which  he  belongs.  And  then  again,  the 
habit  of  dealing  in  personalities  is  perhaps 
more  prevalent  among  the  newspaper  wri- 
ters of  America,  than  among  any  other  peo- 
ple ;  the  excesses  in  this  direction,  some- 
times lead  to  bitter  conflicts  and  even  to 
untimely  deaths  ;  but  it  is  certain,  that  all 
the  more  notorious  abuses  of  the  press  are 
frowned  upon  by  the  better  classes  in  every 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC    LIFE.     279 

community.  Notwithstanding  its  many 
drawbacks,  the  conclusion  is  inevitable, 
that  the  press  of  America  is  the  leading 
civilizer  of  its  multifarious  population,  and 
the  particular  engine  which  has  brought 
about  the  present  prosperous  condition  of 
the  Republic. 

Our  next  topic  for  consideration  is  the 
artistic  life  of  America,  as  we  find  it  devel- 
oped in  the  pursuits  of  painting,  sculpture, 
and  architecture.  The  number  of  persons 
engaged  in  these  various  employments  is 
not  large,  but  they  are  necessarily  men  of 
culture ;  exert  a  great  influence  in  devel- 
oping the  taste  of  the  people  generally ;  and 
they  congregate  and  find  employment  chief- 
ly in  the  larger  cities.  The  painters  are  of 
several  kinds,  viz  :  Portrait  painters,  His- 
torical painters,  Landscape  painters,  and 
various  subordinate  classes  who  produce 
miscellaneous  pictures.  The  materials  most 
commonly  used  are  oil  colors  and  canvas ; 
and  while  the  majority  of  these  artists  man- 
age to  support  themselves  in  comfort,  those 


280     LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE. 

who  happen  to  become  fashionable  or  pos- 
sess extraordinary  ability,  frequently  meet 
with  great  success.  While  it  is  true  that 
good  portraits  may  be  obtained  for  fifty  or 
one  hundred  dollars,  it  is  also  true  that  five 
thousand  dollars  is  not  an  uncommon  price 
for  very  superior  portraits ;  and,  according 
to  circumstances,  the  prices  paid  for  pic- 
tures of  Scenery,  range  from  fifty  dollars 
to  ten  thousand  dollars.  In  these  two  de- 
partments, the  American  artists  are  perhaps 
equal  to  those  of  Europe ; — but  with  regard 
to  historical  painting,  the  English,  French 
and  German  artists  are  all  in  advance  of 
the  Americans.  Generally  speaking,  be- 
fore a  man  can  become  expert  in  the  art 
of  painting,  he  has  to  acquire  a  knowledge 
of  drawing,  and  this  study  has  come  to  be 
so  common  and  popular  that  many  artists 
confine  themselves  to  drawing  alone  and 
hence  the  kind  of  pictures  known  as  en- 
gravings, which  are  merely  copies  of  draw- 
ings as  well  as  paintings,  have  almost  a 
universal  circulation.  They  are  executed 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC    LIFE.     281 

on  steel,  on  copper,  on  stone,  and  on  wood, 
and  used  extensively  in  books  and  weekly 
and  monthly  periodicals.  To  what  extent 
this  is  true,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  a  sin- 
gle illustrated  journal  published  in  New 
York,  is  said  to  have  a  circulation  of  three 
hundred  thousand  copies.  And  then  again, 
large  numbers  of  engravings  are  prepared 
and  published,  which  are  used  for  the  adorn- 
ment of  the  houses  of  the  people,  as  is  the 
case  with  paintings,  as  well  as  photographs, 
and  chromo-lithographs,  which  latter  class- 
es of  pictures  have  come  to  be  more  popu- 
lar than  any  others.  The  custom  of  hang- 
ing pictures  on  the  walls  of  the  houses  is  a 
leading  characteristic  among  the  Ameri- 
cans ;  and  while  the  poor  mechanic  or  far- 
mer may  be  content  with  a  few  cheap  en- 
gravings or  photographs,  men  of  wealth  are 
very  much  in  the  habit  of  spending  thou- 
sands upon  thousands  of  dollars,  for  works 
of  art  of  the  highest  order.  Many  of  the 
private  collections  thus  formed  are  really  of 
a  princely  character ;  and  then,  in  all  the 


282     LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE. 

leading  cities,  they  have  extensive  public 
collections  of  pictures,  with  which  are  com- 
monly associated  certain  schools  for  impart- 
ing a  practical  knowledge  of  the  fine  arts. 
The  extent  to  which  the  General  Govern- 
ment patronizes  the  art  of  painting  is  limi- 
ted to  a  few  historical  productions,  includ- 
ing compositions  and  portraits  to  be  found 
in  the  Capitol  and  Executive  Mansion. 

As  the  art  of  sculpture  is  far  less  popu- 
lar among  the  people,  than  that  of  painting, 
we  find  the  sculptors  reduced  to  a  small 
number.  Among  them,  however,  are  to  be 
found  some  few  men  of  great  abilities  and 
extensive  reputations.  It  is  claimed,  in- 
deed, that  the  United  States  has  gained,  in 
sculpture,  a  far  higher  rank  than  in  any  of 
the  fine  arts.  The  works  here  produced, 
are  generally  executed  in  white  marble, 
though  sometimes  in  bronze,  and  in  the 
great  majority  of  instances  represent  the 
busts  or  full  length  figures  of  distinguished 
men.  This  style  of  art  is  always  expensive, 
and  it  is  only  the  rich  who  can  afford  to 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.     283 

perpetuate  the  features  of  their  family 
friends  in  this  manner.  When  intended 
for  exhibition  in  private  dwellings,  or  in 
galleries  of  art,  these  productions  are  usu- 
ally of  the  size  of  life,  but  when  intended 
for  the  adornment  of  private  gardens  or 
public  grounds,  they  are  of  colossal  size, 
and  noted  military  men  are  occasionally 
represented  mounted  on  horses.  The  chief 
patrons  of  this  kind  of  art  are  the  National 
and  State  Governments,  and  hence  busts 
and  statues  are  to  be  found,  stationed  to 
some  extent,  in  the  public  buildings  in 
Washington  and  in  the  capitals  of  the  sev- 
eral States.  In  the  National  Capitol,  a 
large  and  handsome  hall  has  been  appropri- 
ated entirely  to  the  reception  of  busts  and 
statues  of  celebrated  statesmen  and  mili- 
tary and  naval  commanders ; — and  in  this 
connection,  a  law  has  been  passed,  granting 
the  privilege  to  each  State  in  the  Union,  to 
send  to  this  central  exhibition-place,  a  por- 
trait in  marble,  of  any  two  men,  which  the 
State  authorities  may  choose  to  honor  in 


284     LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE. 

this  manner.  When  copies  of  marble  or 
bronze  productions  are  desired  by  private 
individuals,  and  the  means  of  the  person 
wanting  them  are  limited,  it  is  frequently 
the  case  that  a  kind  of  white  plaster  is  used 
as  a  substitute  for  the  more  enduring  ma- 
terials ;  and  this  composition  is  employed, 
to  a  great  extent,  in  reproducing  the  ancient 
and  more  celebrated  works  of  sculpture  in 
Europe,  which  are  brought  to  America  to 
serve  as  models  in  the  art  schools  of  the 
country. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  what  has  been 
done  in  the  United  States  in  the  way  of 
architecture.  In  the  early  years  of  the 
country  the  abundance  of  wood,  and  the 
ease  of  preparing  it,  made  it  the  universal 
building  material,  and  for  a  long  time  hard- 
ly anything  else  was  used,  although  for 
buildings  of  importance  brick  was  brought 
from  England.  The  haste  to  get  shelter, 
and  the  availability  of  wood,  make  this 
still  the  common  material — almost  the  only 
one  used — in  the  new  cities  of  the  Western 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC    LIFE.     285 

States  and  Territories.  The  recent  terrible 
fire  at  Chicago,  is  an  illustration  in  part,  of 
this  fact,  and  of  the  evils  of  building  with 
wood  alone.  But  within  the  present  cen- 
tury much  brick  has  been  made,  and  stone 
quarries  have  been  opened  all  over  the 
country.  In  the  older  cities,  brick  and 
stone  in  connection  with  iron,  are  now  al- 
most entirely  employed,  certain  varieties  of 
stone  being  used  for  all  the  most  important 
buildings.  The  New  England  States  furn- 
ish a  great  deal  of  granite  and  sienite,  which 
are  very  strong  and  durable  stones,  but 
too  hard  and  rough  for  finely  cut  or  orna- 
mental work.  There  is  much  sandstone  in 
the  Middle  States,  and  in  the  West  are 
many  kinds  of  sand  and  limestone  which 
are  easily  cut,  and  receive  readily  the  rich- 
est ornamentation.  There  is  also  through- 
out the  United  States  a  great  variety  of 
white  and  colored  marbles,  much  used  in 
ornamental  and  decorative  work;  and  many 
elaborate  buildings  are  built  of  them. 
Before  the  present  century  architects 


286     LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE. 

were  few  in  America  and  of  little  skill ; 
buildings  were  designed,  for  the  most  part, 
by  the  men  who  built  them.  But  the  gain 
of  the  community  in  wealth  and  leisure  has 
greatly  developed  the  profession  in  the. 
present  generation.  The  earlier  architects 
worked  only  by  English  traditions,  which 
were,  in  their  turn,  derived  from  the  Italian 
architects  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  The  earlier  architects  of  this 
country  usually  obtained  their  professional 
education  in  Europe,  where  the  advantages 
were  numerous ;  at  the  present  time,  how- 
ever, young  Americans  find  excellent  op- 
portunities in  the  offices  of  the  better  trained 
architects  at  home.  The  multiplication  of 
prints,  photographs  and  casts  in  plaster 
from  the  best  old  examples,  have  greatly 
facilitated  study;  schools  of  architecture 
have  been  established  in  several  of  the 
educational  institutions  of  the  country;  and 
in  New  York,  they  have  an  American  In- 
stitute of  Architects,  which  is  represented 
in  all  the  leading  cities  of  the  country  by 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.     287 

what  they  call  "  Chapters,"  and  which  are 
said  to  exercise  an  important  influence 
within  their  proper  sphere.  The  styles  of 
architecture  employed  in  America  are  as 
various  as  possible,  but  perhaps  the  kind 
of  buildings  in  which  the  United  States 
architects  are  most  successful,  is  that  of 
wooden  villas,  which  are  often  both  beauti- 
ful and  convenient.  It  has  been  charged 
against  the  Americans,  that  in  regard  to 
architecture,  if  nothing  else,  they  lay  more 
stress  upon  the  idea  of  a  conventional 
beauty,  than  upon  substantial  usefulness. 
A  church  may  be  beautiful  to  the  eye,  but 
filled  with  uncomfortable  seats  and  a  per- 
petual darkness ;  a  public  building  may  be 
very  ornamental,  but  badly  ventilated;  and 
a  dwelling  may  appear  like  a  palace,  and 
in  reality  be  without  a  single  comfort. 
Notwithstanding  the  immense  amounts  of 
money  which  are  annually  expended  in 
America  upon  fine  buildings,  it  is  claimed 
that  there  is  much  room  for  improvement ; 
and  it  is  a  creditable  truth,  that  a  great  im- 


288      LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE. 

petus  has  recently  been  given  to  the  art  of 
architecture  by  the  patronage  of  the  Gene- 
ral Government,  whose  buildings  are  nume- 
rous, and  among  the  most  extensive  and 
imposing  in  the  Republic.  In  this  connec- 
tion one  fact  which  seems  amazing,  and 
is  indeed  a  subject  of  remark,  is  this  :— 
that  there  now  stands  in  the  city  of  Wash- 
ington a  monument  to  the  memory  of  George 
Washington,  who  is  called  the  Father  of 
his  Country,  which  was  commenced  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century  ago,  and  is  yet  unfinished, 
and  a  painful  spectacle  to  all  the  world. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  science  in 
America,  but  before  doing  so  it  may  be 
proper  to  make  some  remarks  in  regard  to 
science  in  general.  The  term  science,  in 
its  more  restricted  sense,  is  a  knowledge  of 
the  laws  of  nature,  or  how  the  changes  in 
the  natural  world  are  produced.  In  a 
more  general  sense,  it  is  used  to  include 
descriptive  natural  history,  from  which  it 
differs  in  this,  that  the  latter  classifies  and 
describes  things  or  objects  in  nature,  as  they 


LITERARY,    ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.     289 

exist,  without  considering  their  origin  or 
the  changes  to  which  they  are  subjected. 
Science,  then,  although  founded  on  the  re- 
sults of  experiments  and  observations,  does 
not  consist  in  collections  of  isolated  facts 
but  in  general  principles  from  which  spe- 
cial facts  can  be  deduced  when  certain  con- 
ditions are  known.  Thus  the  phenomena 
of  astronomy  are  all  referred  to  principles 
which  are  denominated  the  laws  of  force 
and  motion.  By  means  of  these  laws, 
if  the  relative  mass,  position  and  velocity 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  are  known  at  a  given 
epoch,  their  relative  position  for  all  times, 
in  the  remotest  past  as  well  as  in  the  distant 
future,  can  be  calculated.  Other  phenom- 
ena are  referred  to  other  laws,  such  as  those 
of  light,  heat,  electricity,  navigation,  chem- 
ical action,  life  and  organization.  These 
laws  are  generally  expressed  in  the  form  of 
theories,  by  which  they  can  be  more  readily 
understood  and  applied,  either  in  the  way 
of  practical  inventions  or  in  the  discovery 
of  new  truths.  The  knowledge  of  a  law  of 


290      LITEEAEY,   ARTISTIC,   SCIENTIFIC   LIFE. 

nature  enables  the  savant  to  explain,  pre- 
dict, and  in  some  cases  to  control  the  phe- 
nomena to  which  these  laws  pertain.  These 
characteristics  of  science  afford  the  means 
of  clearly  distinguishing  between  the  ex- 
pressions of  real  truths  or  laws,  and  the 
mere  vague  speculations  with  which  the 
principles  of  science  are  often  confounded. 
It  is  by  the  discovery  and  application  of 
these  laws  that  modern  civilization  differs 
essentially  from  that  of  ancient  times,  and 
also  from  the  civilization  of  China  and  Ja- 
pan. In  these  countries  the  arts  of  life  are 
based  upon  facts  accidentally  discovered, 
which  lie,  as  it  were,  on  the  face  of  nature, 
are  few  in  number  and  soon  exhausted. 
While  in  Europe  and  North  America  the 
various  inventions  which  add  so  much  to 
the  material  well-being  of  man,  are  derived 
from  the  endless  stores  of  facts  deduced 
from  scientific  principles.  It  is  by  a  know- 
ledge of  the  law  of  gravitation,  heat,  elec- 
tricity and  chemical  action  that  these  powers 
are  rendered  obedient  and  efficient  slaves 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,   SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.      291 

by  which  man  emancipates  himself  from 
the  bondage  of  brute  labors,  to  which 
in  ancient  times  he  was  universally  sub- 
jected; while  by  a  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  light  and  of  sound,  the  infirmities  of  age 
are  remedied,  and  the  range  of  human 
senses  indefinitely  extended.  By  the  con- 
stant study  of  the  phenomena  of  nature, 
irrespective  of  the  use  which  may  flow  from 
them,  our  knowledge  is  continually  increas- 
ed, while  from  the  discovery  of  every  new 
principle  in  science,  many  applications  in  art 
usually  follow.  It  is  this  which  is  under- 
stood by  the  Baconian  aphorism — "  Knowl- 
edge is  power."  There  are  at  the  present 
time  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world  men 
who  are  devoting  their  thoughts  and  time 
to  the  investigations  of  the  various  phe- 
nomena of  nature,  and  through  the  inter- 
course which  is  established  between  all 
parts  of  the  world,  the  discoveries  made  by 
each,  become  the  knowledge  of  all,  and  in 
this  way  science  is  rapidly  increasing. 
Moreover,  whatever  is  discovered  in  one 


292     LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC    LIFE. 

portion  of  the  domain  of  nature,  as  a  gene- 
.  ral  rule,  tends  to  reflect  light  on  various 
other  portions,  and  also  to  furnish  instru- 
ments for  more  extended  and  varied  re- 
search. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  foregoing  remarks, 
that  the  country  is  most  highly  civilized, — 
at  least  in  one  direction, — which  makes  the 
best  provision  for  the  investigation  of  ab- 
stract science.  Of  all  nations  at  present 
existing,  Prussia  appears  to  be  the  most 
advanced  in  this  respect.  Whenever  an 
individual  is  found  capable  of  making  orig- 
inal discoveries  in  that  country,  he  is  at 
once  consecrated  to  science.  He  is  elec- 
ted a  higher  professor  in  one  of  the  Univer- 
sities, receives  a  liberal  salary,  is  supplied 
with  all  the  implements  necessary  for  re- 
search in  his  special  line,  and  is  allowed 
full  time  for  his  investigations;  being  re- 
quired to  give  but  few  lectures  on  higher 
subjects,  while  the  teaching  arid  the  drill- 
ing of  pupils  are  performed  by  men  of  infe- 
rior talents.  In  the  United  States,  where 


LITERARY,    ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.     293 

so  much  is  to  be  done  in  the  way  of  subdu- 
ing nature,  and  developing  the  resources  of 
a  new  country,  there  has  been  consequent- 
ly, a  great  demand  for  the  application  of 
science,  and  less  attention  has  been  given, 
until  of  late,  to  encourage  and  sustain  orig- 
inal investigation. 

One  effect  of  the  general  diffusion  of  edu- 
cation in  the  United  States,  especially  in 
New  England,  has  been  to  render  the  peo- 
ple impatient,  as  to  mere  manual  labor,  and 
hence,  from  the  scarcity  of  laborers,  and 
the  great  demand  for  them,  a  large  amount 
of  talent  has  been  devoted  to  the  invention 
of  labor-saving  machines.  There  are  no 
people  in  the  world  who  make  so  many  in- 
ventions as  the  Americans,  which  fact  is 
evinced  by  the  number  and  variety  of  mod- 
els in  the  Patent  office.  There  is,  however, 
a  growing  inclination  on  the  part  of  the 
Government  and  of  wealthy  individuals  to 
endow  establishments  for  the  advance  of 
pure  science.  The  Government  has  estab- 
lished the  National  Observatory,  which  is 


294     LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE, 

supported  at  an  annual  expense  of  not  less 
than  seventy-five  thousand  dollars,  and  in 
which  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
are  continuously  studied,  new  facts  ob- 
served, and  new  deductions  from  them  con- 
stantly made.  There  has  also  been  estab- 
lished a  Bureau  for  the  calculation  of  a 
Nautical  Almanac,  the  object  of  which  is 
to  furnish  mariners  with  the  means  for  de- 
termining their  position  on  the  ocean,  while 
it  also  contributes  to  the  advance  of  science 
by  original  mathematical  deductions  from 
facts  which  have  been  observed.  An  ex- 
tended work  called  the  Coast  Survey  has 
likewise  been  established,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  furnish  accurate  maps,  by 
means  of  astronomical  determinations,  of  the 
whole  coast  of  the  country,  but  which  also, 
is  developing,  in  its  operations,  new  facts 
of  the  highest  interest  to  science.  Among 
those  are  the  laws  of  the  variation,  direc- 
tion and  intensity  of  terrestrial  magnetism — 
the  form  and  dimensions  of  the  earth — the 
variation  of  the  force  of  terrestrial  gravita- 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.     295 

tion  on  the  different  portions  of  the  earth's 
surface — the  knowledge  of  organized  beings 
which  live  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean, 
within  soundings — and  the  temperature, 
motion  and  magnitude  of  the  Gulf  stream, 
which,  in  passing  across  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
moderates  the  temperature,  and  gives  a 
genial  climate  to  the  north  of  Europe.  An- 
other of  the  Government  establishments 
which  advances  science  is  the  office  of 
Weights  and  Measures,  in  which  a  series 
of  investigations  are  carried  on,  for  deter- 
mining the  expansion  of  bodies  and  the 
best  manner  of  making  accurate  standards 
of  measure,  of  length,  weight  and  capac- 
ity. The  Government  also  has  its  schools 
of  applied  science ; — one,  at  West  Point, 
for  the  education  of  officers  of  the  Army 
in  all  things  pertaining  to  military  life  and 
operations;  and  another  at  Annapolis,  for 
the  education  of  Naval  officers  in  all  mat- 
ters connected  with  the  naval  service.  Of 
late  years,  moreover,  numerous  surveys 
and  explorations  have  been  made  at  the  ex- 


296     LITERARY,    ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC    LIFE. 

pense  of  the  Government  across  the  Conti- 
nent, which  have  tended,  not  only  to  de- 
velop the  resources  of  the  country,  but 
have  afforded  means  for  the  critical  study 
of  the  geology,  mineralogy  and  natural  his- 
tory of  the  regions  traversed,  and  which 
have  resulted  in  the  construction  of  the 
celebrated  railroad  between  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans.  In  many  of  the  older 
States  of  the  Union  there  have  been  insti- 
tuted geological  surveys,  which,  while  they 
have  served  to  discover  the  peculiar  mine- 
ral treasures,  within  the  State  limits,  have 
greatly  added  to  the  science  of  Geology  as 
well  as  to  Natural  History.  The  ostensi- 
ble object  of  all  these  establishments  of  the 
General  Government,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
separate  States,  is  practical  utility,  although 
abstract  science  is  greatly  advanced  by 
means  of  them. 

In  various  parts  of  the  country  astronom- 
ical observatories  have  been  erected  in  con- 
nection with  some  of  the  principal  Univer- 
sities and  Colleges,  but  in  them,  with  but 


LITERARY,    ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.     297 

few  exceptions,  original  investigations  are 
subordinate  to  the  business  of  education. 
There  are  also  connected  with  the  higher 
institutions  of  learning,  scientific  schools, 
the  object  of  which  is  generally  to  teach 
the  principles  of  science,  as  far  as  they  are 
applicable  to  civil  and  mining  engineering, 
and  the  various  manufactures  which  depend 
upon  a  knowledge  of  chemistry  and  physics. 
The  professors  in  Universities  and  Colleges 
are  the  principal  contributors  to  the  scien- 
tific journals  of  the  day,  in  which  the  pro- 
gress of  science  is  recorded.  There  is  no 
civilized  country  in  which  there  appears  to 
be  a  greater  taste  for  a  knowledge  of  gen- 
eral scientific  results  or  in  which  a  greater 
number  of  popular  scientific  works  are  read 
than  in  the  United  States.  At  the  same 
time,  there  is  scarcely  any  country  in  which 
original  talents,  applied  to  pure  scientific 
investigation,  meet  with  less  reward.  In 
France  and  other  European  countries,  there 
are  Academies  of  Science,  consisting  of  a 
limited  number  of  the  most  distinguished 


298     LITERARY,  ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE. 

individuals,  and  supported  by  Government, 
each  member  receiving  a  salary  besides 
marks  of  social  distinction.  To  become  a 
member  of  one  of  these  academies  is  an  ob- 
ject of  the  highest  ambition,  to  which  is 
directed  the  best  mind  of  the  community. 
In  Great  Britain  there  are  no  such  acade- 
mies, yet  the  Government  makes  yearly 
grants  for  scientific  investigations,  and  in- 
dividuals, distinguished  for  their  scientific 
discoveries,  not  only  receive  pensions,  but 
are  honored  by  the  titles  of  barons  and 
knights.  No  adequate  inducements  are  yet 
held  out  in  the  United  States,  as  a  stimulus 
to  scientific  investigation,  but  for  scientific 
invention  or  the  application  of  science  to 
useful  arts,  there  is  frequently  an  abundant 
remuneration.  Notwithstanding  these  draw- 
backs, much  has  been  done  and  is  doing,  in 
the  way  of  advancing  science,  as  is  evinced 
by  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Phil- 
osophical Society  of  Philadelphia,  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  of 
Boston,  the  publications  of  the  Smithsonian 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC  LIFE.     299 

Institution,  and  of  the  Natural  History 
Societies  and  Academies  of  Boston,  Salem, 
Philadelphia,  Chieago,  San  Francisco,  and 
Xew  Orleans.  All  these  institutions  were 
established  and  are  sustained  by  private  in- 
dividuals. To  the  above  may  be  added  the 
American  Journal  of  Science  in  New  Haven, 
and  the  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute 
of  Philadelphia. 

A  large  portion  of  the  scientific  labor  of 
the  United  States  has  been  devoted  to  de- 
scriptive natural  history,  to  which  attention 
was  invited  by  the  almost  unbounded  field 
which  was  presented  for  study  in  the 
mineral,  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms, 
and  because  a  knowledge  derived  from  these 
was  intimately  connected  with  the  devel- 
opment of  the  wealth  and  prosperity  of  the 
country.  Science  should,  however,  be  stu- 
died for  its  own  sake,  without  regard  to  its 
immediate  application,  since  nothing  tends 
more  to  extend  the  bounds  of  thought, 
to  add  to  the  intellectual  powers  of  man, 
and  to  raise  him  in  the  scale  of  intelligence 


300     LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC    LIFE. 

than 'the  study  and  contemplation  of  the 
operations  of  nature ;  and  we  are  happy  to 
think  that,  as  we  have  said  before,  there  is 
in  this  great  country  a  growing  apprecia- 
tion of  the  importance  of  abstract  science, 
and  that  many  institutions  in  various  parts 
of  it  will  be  established  through  the  en- 
lightened   policy    of    wealthy    individuals 
for   its  cultivation   and  advancement.     A 
conspicuous  example  of  what  has  been  done 
in  this  line  is  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
founded  in  Washington  by  James  Smithson, 
of  England,  for  the  increase  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge  among  men.     The  founder 
was  devoted  to  scientific  investigation,  and 
under  the  impulse  of  his  ruling  passion, 
bequeathed  his  entire  property  for  a  similar 
purpose.     It  is  as  yet  the  only  well  en- 
dowed institution  in  America  which  is  in- 
tended exclusively  for  the  advancement  of 
abstract  science.     But  through  the  influ- 
ence which  it  has  attained,  by  the  perse- 
vering effort  of  its  director,  Prof.  Joseph 
Henry,  and  the  example  which  it  has  set, 


LITERARY,   ARTISTIC,    SCIENTIFIC   LIFE.-   301 

it  is  thought  that  other  institutions  of  a 
similar  character  will  be  founded.  Indeed, 
several  wealthy  individuals  have  already, 
independently  of  each  other,  made  appro- 
priations for  scientific  investigations.  Fore- 
most among  these  in  liberality,  and  more 
especially  as  a  man  of  science,  may  be  men- 
tioned Prof.  A.  D.  Bache,  the  late  Super- 
intendent of  the  Coast  Survey,  who  left  the 
sum  of  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  scientific 
experiments  and  observations,  the  first  pro- 
ceeds of  which  are  now  being  devoted  to  a 
magnetic  survey  of  the  United  States,  the 
results  of  which  will  be  published  and  dis- 
tributed to  all  parts  of  the  world. 


PART  NINTH 


LIFE   AMONG  THE  MINERS. 


IT  is  now  generally  acknowledged  that 
the  mineral  resources  of  the  United  States 
are  more  extensive  and  varied  than  those 
of  any  other  country  in  the  world.  Indeed, 
to  give  anything  like  a  minute  account  of 
them,  would  fill  many  volumes,  and  there- 
fore, with  a  view  of  being  brief,  we  propose 
to  submit  a  few  facts  on  the  leading  mine- 
ral productions  of  the  country,  beginning 
with  the  precious  metals. 

Gold  has  been  found  in  about  one  half  of 
the  States  of  the  Union.  Prior  to  the  year 
1848  this  metal,  as  well  as  silver,  was  chiefly 
obtained  from  Virginia,  Tennessee,  the  Car- 
olinas  and  Georgia;  at  the  present  time  the 
States  of  California,  Oregon  and  Nevada 


306  LIFE  AMONG   THE   MINERS. 

and  the  Territories  of  Washington,  Idaho, 
Arizona,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Montana, 
Dakota  and  Wyoming,  are  by  far  the  most 
productive  gold-fields  on  the  globe,  and 
throughout  all  this  region,  many  other  val- 
uable minerals  are  found,  but  silver  is  the 
most  important.  At  the  time  of  the  great 
discoveries  in  California,  the  annual  pro- 
duction of  the  whole  world  was  only  twenty 
millions  of  dollars,  but  in  seven  years  from 
that  time,  California  alone  yielded  sixty 
millions,  and  its  recent  annual  production 
has  been  fixed  at  eighty  millions  of  dollars. 
The  total  gold  and  silver  product  of  the 
United  States  down  to  the  year  1868,  was 
estimated  at  $1,255,000,000,  and  never  be- 
fore in  the  history  of  the  world  have  so  few 
people  established  so  extensive  a  business. 
The  region  where  gold  is  found  covers 
an  area  of  one  million  square  miles  and 
is  chiefly  the  property  of  the  nation.  Hand- 
washing,  as  we  have  been  informed  by  a 
man  of  experience  in  these  matters,  was 
the  earliest  mode  of  collecting  gold,  and 


LIFE   AMONG   THE   MINERS.  307 

the  pan  and  the  rocker  were  the  first  im- 
plements used  in  California  mining.  Quick- 
silver was  soon  employed  to  collect  the  fine 
particles,  often  lost  in  hand-washing.  Hy- 
draulic mining,  now  largely  used  in  Cali- 
fornia, is  done  by  throwing  currents  of 
water,  from  hose  and  pipes,  with  enormous 
force  against  banks  of  earth,  cutting  away 
whole  hills.  Down  the  face  of  the  hills, 
also,  pour  artificial  streams.  At  the  foot, 
the  waters  all  pass  away  in  long  flumes  or 
wooden  troughs,  carrying  the  earth  and 
stones  with  them.  Slats  on  the  bottom  of 
the  flumes  catch  and  retain  the  gold ;  and 
where  gold  is  found  in  hard  quartz,  the 
stones  are  ground  to  powder  by  machinery 
and  stamp-mills,  and  the  gold  thus  comes 
to  the  light,  and  quicksilver  separates  it 
from  the  dust.  Silver  is  never  found  like 
gold,  in  grains  among  the  sand,  but  in  ores 
or  quartz,  from  which  it  has  to  be  reduced 
by  stamping  or  grinding  or  by  smelting. 
It  is  found  in  a  variety  of  ores,  usually 
associated  with  gold,  copper  or  lead.  Pure 


308  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MINERS. 

masses  are  occasionally  found  among  the 
copper  mines  of  Lake  Superior,  and  also  in 
Nevada  and  Idaho.  The  discovery  of  the 
rich  deposits  of  gold  and  silver  in  California 
gave  new  impetus  to  the  movements  of 
population  everywhere,  stimulated  all  de- 
partments of  industry,  brought  together 
into  the  same  communities  people  from 
every  part  of  the  globe,  settled  the  vast 
territories  of  the  United  States,  facilitated 
intercourse  between  the  nations,  and,  with 
the  mining  operations  in  Australia,  has 
steadily  changed  values  throughout  the 
world. 

But,  notwithstanding  the  immense  amount 
of  treasure  that  has  been  taken  from  the 
soils  and  rocks  of  California  and  other  Pa- 
cific States,  the  business  of  mining  has  not 
been  profitable  with  the  majority  of  miners. 
Indeed  it  is  said  that  during  the  last  fifteen 
years,  the  farmers  of  Illinois  have  more 
frequently  made  fortunes  than  have  the 
gold  hunters  of  the  West.  In  1865  a  miner 
of  California  named  Jules  Frieot  realized 


LIFE   AMONG   THE   MINERS.  309 

the  sum  of  $182,511  by  quartz  mining,  and 
since  then  a  man  named  James  P.  Pierce, 
from  placer  mine  obtained  in  one  year  the 
sum  of  $102,011, — but  these  were  excep- 
tional cases.  The  cost  of  living  at  the 
mines  is  always  expensive  and  the  accom- 
modations anything  but  comfortable.  At  the 
general  eating  houses  which  are  established 
among  the  mines,  they  commonly  charge 
one  dollar  for  a  single  meal,  and  twelve  dol- 
lars per  week  for  board, — the  sleeping  ac- 
commodations being  a  bare  floor  and  a  pair 
of  blankets.  According  to  the  latest  au- 
thentic data,  the  number  of  miners  in  Cali- 
fornia alone  was  46,550,  of  whom  20,800 
were  Chinese,  and  the  wages  of  these  men 
ranged  from  three  to  five  dollars  per  day. 
The  national  laws  bearing  upon  the  mining 
region  of  the  Pacific  Slope  are  not,  as  yet, 
what  they  should  be;  but  those  which 
have  been  enacted  provide  for  two  classes 
of  miners, — those  who  are  licensed  to  work 
upon  the  public  domain,  and  those  who  be- 
come actual  proprietors  by  purchase  from 


310  LIFE   AMONG  THE   MINERS. 

the  Government.  The  right  is  also  granted 
to  men,  to  purchase  and  work  such  mines 
as  they  may  discover ;  and  as  to  the  min- 
ing customs, — mandatory  edicts  are  passed, 
at  twenty-four  hours'  notice  by  from  five  to 
five  hundred  men,  which,  for  the  time  being, 
are  the  law  of  the  land. 

And  now,  in  closing  these  remarks,  let 
us  glance  at  what  has  been  said  in  regard 
to  the  distribution  of  the  precious  metals. 
The  drain  of  them  has  hitherto  been  toward 
the  East,  where  they  are  used  for  hoarding 
and  for  ornaments,  rather  than  for  money. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  silver.  Between 
the  years  1850  and  1864,  there  were  ex- 
ported to  Asia  from  England  and  the  Med- 
iterranean more  than  $650,000,000.  The 
total  amount  of  silver  in  the  world  is  esti- 
mated at  $10,000,000,000,  or  only  enough 
to  pay  the  debts  of  three  or  four  of  the 
leading  nations  of  the  present  time.  The 
coining  of  gold  and  silver,  as  well  as  cop- 
per, was  commenced  by  the  United  States 
in  1793,  and  the  total  product  of  each  metal, 


LIFE   AMONG  THE   MINERS.  311 

down  to  the  middle  of  1870,  was  as  follows: 
Gold,  $971,628,046  ;  silver,  $143,760,4 74; 
and  copper,  $11,009,048,  or  a  grand  total 
of  $1,126,397,569. 

Of  the  baser  metals,  which  have  hitherto 
been  employed  in  the  coining  of  money, 
copper  is  the  most  important.  Its  most 
valuable  alloy  is  brass,  out  of  which  a  very 
large  number  of  useful  things  are  manufac- 
tured. Another  alloy,  known  as  "  French 
Gold,"  is  extensively  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cheap  jewelry  and  watches.  Cop- 
per is  found  in  ores  and  in  a  metallic  state, 
and  was  first  mined  on  the  American  Con- 
tinent in  New  England.  It  has  been  work- 
ed in  seven  or  eight  of  the  United  States, 
but,  practically,  all  the  copper  product  of 
the  Union,  comes  from  Lake  Superior, 
which  was  almost  an  unknown  wilderness 
as  late  as  the  year  1843.  It  is  found  in  a 
ridge  of  trap  rock,  on  the  shores  belonging 
to  Michigan,  and  masses  of  the  solid  metal 
have  been  discovered  weighing  several  tons. 
The  mines  were  opened  there  in  1845, 


312  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MINERS. 

since  which  time  the  total  yield  has  been 
not  far  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
tons.  It  is  extracted  from  its  ores  by 
smelting  and  calcination,  and  prepared  for 
the  market  in  ingots,  which  are  converted 
into  sheets  by  rolling  mills  established 
chiefly  in  the  Atlantic  States.  Situated  as 
are  the  copper  mines  of  Michigan,  in  a  re- 
gion where  the  winters  are  long  and  the  sum- 
mers short,  the  miners  are  subject  to  many 
hardships  from  the  cold,  and  to  many  pri- 
vations in  the  way  of  bodily  comforts.  A 
large  proportion  of  them  are  men  who  have 
had  experience  in  the  mines  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  other  countries,  and  their  compen- 
sation is  not  on  a  par  with  their  habits  of 
industry  and  their  experience,  but  the  quan- 
tity of  metal  which  they  obtain  from  the 
earth  and  send  to  market  is  very  large. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  precious  metals, 
come  the  coal  productions  of  the  United 
States,  the  two  prominent  varieties  of  which 
bear  the  names  of  Anthracite  and  Bitumin- 
ous. The  largest  producer  of  both,  is  the 


LIFE   AMONG  THE   MINERS.  313 

State  of  Pennsylvania ;  and  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  former,  Rhode  Island  stands  sec- 
ond ;  and  Ohio  occupies  the  second  posi- 
tion in  regard  to  bituminous  coal.  The 
area  of  workable  coal-beds  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  excluding  Alaska,  is  estimated 
at  two  hundred  thousand  square  miles, 
which  is  said  to  be  eight  times  as  large  as 
the  available  coal  area  of  all  the  rest  of  the 
world.  The  coal  veins  are  usually  reached 
by  vertical  shafts,  but  when  found  in  hills, 
are  worked  by  horizontal  galleries.  Not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  perpendicular 
shafts  are  employed  to  secure  thorough 
ventillation,  and  safety  lamps  are  used  to 
prevent  the  ignition  of  the  fatal  fire  damp, 
many  serious  accidents  have  happened  in 
the  mines  of  Pennsylvania.  The  first  rail- 
way for  the  transmission  of  coal  from  the 
mines  was  built  in  1827,  and  the  coal  mines 
now  give  employment  to  more  than  forty 
railroads  and  canals.  It  is  a  common  occur- 
rence for  a  train  of  one  hundred  cars  to  en- 
ter the  city  of  Philadelphia,  loaded  with 


314  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MINERS. 

anthracite,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of 
Baltimore,  which  is  the  principal  exporting 
place  for  bituminous  coal.  The  total  pro- 
duct of  the  United  States  for  the  year  1868 
was  about  19,000,000  tons,  valued  at  $26,- 
000,000,  since  which  time  these  figures 
have  been  increased,  and  are  still  increas- 
ing. It  is  now  seventy  years  since  anthra- 
cite coal  was  used  as  fuel  in  this  country, 
and  about  forty  years  since  it  began  to  be 
extensively  mined  in  the  United  States; 
and  it  has  been  stated  by  authentic  writers 
on  the  subject,  that  the  Coal  Fields  of  the 
United  States  are  thirty-six  times  greater 
than  those  of  Great  Britain,  while  the  annual 
production,  of  Britain  is  five  times  greater 
than  that  of  the  United  States.  The  reasons 
for  this  great  difference  are  apparent.  In 
many  of  the  States  of  the  Union,  the  climate 
is  so  mild,  that  no  coal  is  needed  for  domes- 
tic purposes,  and  when  fuel  is  demanded  for 
manufacturing  purposes,  there  is  always  to 
be  obtained  an  abundant  supply  of  wood. 
And  then  again,  excepting  the  New  Eng- 


LIFE   AMONG  THE   MINERS.  315 

land,  the  Middle,  and  some  of  the  Western 
States,  where  prairies  abound,  the  forests 
are  so  numerous  that  it  must  be  many  years 
before  coal  will  become  a  necessity  among 
the  people.  Indeed,  the  very  remarkable 
fact  has  been  chronicled,  that  in  some  of 
the  Western  States,  where  agriculture  is 
the  chief  source  of  wealth,  the  article  known 
as  maize  or  Indian  corn,  has  been  employed 
as  fuel.  If,  however,  we  find  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  inhabitants  in  America, 
have  no  immediate  interest  in  the  produc- 
tion of  coal,  it  is  at  the  same  time  true,  that 
a  very  large  part  of  the  population  are  con- 
sumers of  what  is  called  coal  oil  or  petro- 
leum. Although  long  known  to  the  scien- 
tific world,  this  article  did  not  become 
known  to  the  commercial  world  until  1858. 
It  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
but  more  extensively  in  Western  Pennsyl- 
vania than  in  any  other  region,  where  very 
large  fortunes  have  been  made  by  persons 
engaged  in  drawing  the  precious  liquid  out 
of  the  earth.  It  is  obtained  by  means  of 


316  LIFE   AMONG  THE  MINERS. 

artesian  wells,  which  are  sunk  from  one 
hundred  to  six  hundred  feet  into  the  earth, 
and  some  of  which  have  yielded  with  the 
aid  of  forcing  pumps,  as  much  as  two  thou- 
sand barrels  of  oil  in  a  single  day.  The 
applications  of  petroleum  are  chiefly  limited 
to  purposes  of  illumination  and  lubricating 
machinery,  and  for  the  latter  purpose  the 
consumption  is  very  large  on  the  railroads 
and  in  the  manufactories.  A  distillation 
of  this  oil  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  certain  kinds  of  leather,  and  in  the  pre- 
paration of  paints  and  varnishes.  This 
trade  in  rock  oil  has  become  very  extensive, 
and  is  every  day  becoming  more  and  more 
highly  appreciated,  as  a  servant  of  civiliza- 
tion; the  revenue  which  it  produces  being 
of  great  magnitude,  and  the  number  of  peo- 
ple which  it  supports  very  numerous. 

The  next  important  mineral  product  that 
we  have  to  notice  is  iron,  recognized  as  the 
most  useful  known  to  man.  It  is  more 
widely  distributed  throughout  the  United 
States  than  any  of  the  important  metals ; 


LIFE   AMONG  THE  MINERS.  317 

is  found  in  abundance  in  New  York,  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
Maryland  and  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
Oregon,  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  Alabama, 
and  Missouri ;  but  is  chiefly  mined  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  Jersey,  where  the  yield  is 
more  than  one-half  of  the  whole  product  in 
the  United  States,  or  about  seven  hundred 
tons  per  annum,  from  one  hundred  and  thir- 
ty establishments.  In  Missouri  it  is  found 
in  great  abundance,  where  there  is  a  hill 
called  "Iron  Mountain,"  which  is  more  than 
two  hundred  feet  high,  and  is  supposed  to 
contain  two  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of 
tons  of  pure  metal.  Another,  well  nigh  solid 
iron  mountain  is  called  "  Pilot  Knob,"  nearly 
six  hundred  feet  high,  and  it  is  thought 
would  furnish  one  million  tons  per  annum 
for  two  hundred  years.  These  two  moun- 
tains, with  another  called  Shepherd's  moun- 
tian  also  in  Missouri,  are  considered  among 
the  curiosities  of  America.  And  yet  with 
these  figures  before  us,  the  astounding  fact 
is  proclaimed  that  nearly  half  a  million  tons 


318  LIFE   AMONG   THE   MINERS. 

of  iron  were  imported  from  Great  Britain  in 
1868,  while  the  yield  of  the  United  States 
was  about  sixteen  hundred  thousand  tons. 
But  the  fact  that  there  should  be  any  iron 
imported  from  England,  grows  out  of  the 
operations  of  the  American  Tariff.  The 
great  magnitude  and  importance  of  the  iron 
interest,  which  can  only  be  fully  treated  in 
elaborate  volumes,  is  rendered  difficult  to 
notice  in  a  paragraph  like  the  present.  The 
processes  by  which  the  ores  are  turned  into 
metallic  iron  are  as  follows  : — in  what  are 
called  Bloomeries  and  Forges  the  ores  are 
converted  directly  into  mallable  iron  with- 
out passing  through  the  intermediate  stage 
of  cast  or  pig  iron ; — and  by  means  of  Blast 
Furnaces,  the  ores  are  decomposed  as  they 
fuse  in  vast  quantities  at  a  time  and  pro- 
duce the  cast  or  pig  iron ; — and  then  they 
have  what  are  called  Rolling  Mills  which 
convert  the  iron  into  sheets  and  plates. 
With  regard  to  the  uses  to  which  iron  is 
appropriated  in  the  United  States,  they  are 
well-nigh  infinite ;  and  we  can  only  obtain 


LIFE  AMONG  THE  MINERS.  3191 

an  idea  of  the  extent  of  its  consumption, 
by  reflecting  upon  the  quantity  of  it  which 
is  transferred  into  steel,  for  cutlery  and 
machinery;  upon  the  extensive  lines  of 
railway  in  the  country  and  the  great  num- 
ber of  locomotives  employed;  and  upon 
manifold  uses  in  connection  with  shipping 
and  house-building  throughout  the  length 
and  breadth  of  this  immense  country. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  the  production 
of  lead  in]  the  United  States.  The  two 
most  prominent  deposits  of  this  useful  min- 
eral are  to  be  found  in  the  States  of  Mis- 
souri and  Illinois.  The  working  of  the 
former  was  commenced  in  1854  and  the 
latter  in  1788.  The  largest  supply  comes 
from  those  two  States,  although  it  is  also 
found  in  abundance  in  Wisconsin  and  Iowa. 
The  American  lead  is  remarkable  for  its 
softness  and  purity,  and  although  obtained 
with  comparative  ease,  excepting  what  is 
mined  in  Illinois  and  Iowa,  it  is  not  easily 
transported  to  market.  The  total  produc- 
tion of  the  Union,  during  the  year  1869, 


320  LIFE   AMONG  THE   MINERS. 

was  estimated  at  thirty-eight  millions  of 
pounds,  while  Spain  produced  about  sixty- 
seven  millions,  and  Great  Britain  more 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty-three  millions 
of  pounds ; — and  the  imports  into  the  Uni- 
ted States  greatly  exceed  the  domestic 
product.  The  uses  to  which  the  metal  is 
applied  are  very  numerous  and  highly  im- 
portant. One  of  the  most  useful  applica- 
tions of  lead  is  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
carbonate,  which  is  extensively  used  as  a 
white  paint,  and  also  as  a  body  for  other 
colors.  The  smelting  of  lead  and  the  man- 
ufacture of  the  white  paint  therefrom,  are 
considered  prejudicial  to  health,  and  the 
workmen  suffer  much  from  colic  and  par- 
alysis. 

Another  of  the  more  important  minerals 
found  in  the  United  States,  in  almost  inex- 
haustable  quantities  is  Quicksilver.  It  is 
chiefly  mined  in  California,  where  the  annual 
product  is  considerably  more  than  half  the 
yield  of  the  whole  world  beside,  the  total 
annual  yield  having  been  about  six  hundred 


LIFE   AMONG  THE  MINERS.  321 

thousand  pounds.  Until  recently  the  mines 
of  Spain  controlled  the  Chinese  market, 
but  the  miners  of  California  shipped  a  large 
amount  to  Hong  Kong,  where  they  sold  it 
far  below  cost,  and  the  supply  from  Spain 
was  driven  back  to  that  country.  The  Eng- 
lish market  is  now  supplied  by  Spain  and 
the  Chinese  market  by  California.  Besides 
the  countries  named,  Austria  and  Peru  furn- 
ish a  small  supply  of  this  valuable  mineral. 
The  chief  demand  for  it  is  for  mining  pur- 
poses, and  for  the  manufacture  of  calomel 
and  vermillion. 

With  regard  to  the  metals  known  as  tin, 
zinc,  platinum,  nickel,  antimony,  cpbalt, 
and  other  minor  metals,  they  are  all  found 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  but 
none  of  them  have  as  yet  been  mined  to 
any  great  extent.  With  the  increase  of 
population  and  railways,  it  is  supposed  that 
the  business  of  mining  will  grow  into  a 
gigantic  national  interest,  and  that  America 
will  lead  the  world  in  the  value  and  variety 
of  her  mineral  products.  The  National 


322  LIFE  AMONG  THE   MINERS. 

Government,  within  the  last  few  years,  has 
done  much  to  develop  the  hidden  resources 
of  the  land,  by  sending  forth  competent 
scientific  expeditions,  and  publishing  their 
results  for  the  benefit  of  the  public ;  and 
the  people  themselves  have  manifested  their 
interest  in  the  subject  by  establishing  and 
supporting  a  number  of  well-conducted  jour- 
nals devoted  wholly  to  Mining  Engineering. 
In  taking  a  general  survey  of  the  mining 
population  of  America  we  cannot  but  con- 
clude that  they  are  noted  for  their  intelli- 
gence, and  in  view  of  the  hardship  and 
privations  which  they  undergo,  are  not  as 
well  paid  as  they  should  be,  although  better 
paid  than  the  mining  people  of  other  coun- 
tries. A  very  large  proportion  of  them, 
however,  are  foreigners,  and  as  they  have 
generally  improved  their  condition  by  emi- 
grating to  this  country  they  are  contented 
with  their  lot.  Those  of  them  who  are 
engaged  in  mining  coal,  iron,  lead,  and  cop- 
per, in  the  older  States  of  the  Union,  have 
facilities  for  the  education  of  their  children 


LIFE   AMONG   THE   MINERS.  323 

at  common  schools,  but  in  the  frontier 
States  and  Territories,  where  the  precious 
metals  are  chiefly  found,  family  men  are 
not  abundant,  and  the  opportunities  for 
making  them  comfortable,  and  educating 
the  young,  are  few  and  far  between. 


PART    TENTH. 


LIFE  IN  THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY. 


THE  standing  army  of  the  United  States 
began  with  the  foundation  of  the  Govern- 
ment in  1789,  but  when  necessary  it  has 
always  been  customary  to  employ  what  is 
called  a  volunteer  force  or  army.  During 
the  war  of  the  Revolution  the  number  of 
soldiers  employed  was  275,000;  in  the  war 
of  1812  the  combined  troops  numbered 
527,631 ;  during  the  Seminole  war  of  1817, 
5,611;  Black  Hawk  war  of  1832,  5,031; 
Florida  war  of  1842,  29,953;  war  with 
Mexico  in  1846,  73,260;  miscellaneous 
troubles,  about  20,000 ;  and  during  the  late 
Civil  war  the  forces  in  the  field,  at  one  time, 
numbered  2,688,523.  The  total  amount  of 
money  expended  by  the  United  States  in 


328  LIFE  IN   THE   ARMY  AND   NAVY. 

carrying  on  its  various  wars  was  $3,308,- 
352,706. 

The  Regular  Army  of  the  United  States  is 
at  present  constituted  as  follows :  1  General; 
3  Major-Generals ;  16  Brigadier-Generals ; 
68  Colonels;  83  Lieutenant-Colonels;  271 
Majors;  36  Aides-de-Camp ;  532  Captains; 
40  Adjutants,  (extra  Lieutenants;)  40  Reg- 
imental Quartermasters,  (extra  Lieuten- 
ants;) 682  First  Lieutenants;  455  Second 
Lieutenants;  34  Chaplains;  29  Military 
Store-keepers ;  5  Medical  Store-keepers ; 
40  Sergeant-Majors ;  40  Quartermaster- 
Sergeants  ;  40  Chief  Musicians ;  60  Princi- 
pal Musicians ;  10  Saddler-Sergeants ;  10 
Chief  Trumpeters;  151  Ordnance-Sergeants; 
362  Hospital  Stewards;  430  First  Ser- 
geants ;  430  Company  Quartermaster-Ser- 
geants;  1947  Sergeants;  1837  Corporals; 
240  Trumpeters ;  654  Musicians;  240  Far- 
riers or  Blacksmiths ;  620  Artificers  ;  120 
Saddlers ;  430  Wagoners ;  300  Privates  of 
the  1st  Class,  (Ordnance  and  Engineers ;) 
299  Privates  of  the  2d  Class,  (Ordnance 


LIFE  IN  THE  ARMY  AND   NAVY.  329 

and  Engineers ;)  22,100  Privates ;  also  one 
Battalion  Sergeant-Major  and  one  Battalion 
Quartermaster-Sergeant ;  making  the  whole 
number  of  commissioned  officers  2,263,  and 
the  whole  number  of  enlisted  men  30,000. 
There  are  besides  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy,  8  Professors  and  241 
Cadets,  making  the  total  commissioned  and 
enlisted,  32,512.  The  Army  is  sub-divided 
into  10  regiments  of  Cavalry,  5  regiments 
of  Artillery,  25  regiments  of  Infantry, 
and  the  Engineer  Battalion.  Each  regi- 
ment of  Cavalry  has  1  Colonel,  1  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel, 3  Majors,  1  Adjutant  (ex- 
tra Lieutenant,)  1  Regimental  Quartermas- 
ter, (extra  Lieutenant,)  12  Captains,  12 
First  Lieutenants,  12  Second  Lieutenants, 
1  Sergeant-Major,  1  Quartermaster-Ser- 
geant,! Chief  Musician,  1  Saddler-Sergeant, 
1  Chief  Trumpeter,  12  First  Sergeants,  12 
Company  Quartermaster  Sergeants,  60  Ser- 
geants, 48  Corporals,  24  Trumpeters,  24 
Farriers  and  Blacksmiths,  12  Saddlers,  12 
Wagoners,  and  804  Privates.  The  whole 


330  LIFE  IN  THE   ARMY   AND  NAVY. 

number  of  commissioned  officers  to  the  reg- 
iment is  44,  and  whole  number  enlisted  is 
1,013,  making  the  aggregate  1,057.  The 
regiment  is  sub-divided  into  12  troops,  each 
troop  having  1  captain,  1  first  lieutenant, 
1  second  lieutenant,  1  first  sergeant,  1  com- 
pany quartermaster-sergeant,  5  sergeants, 
4  corporals,  2  trumpeters,  2  farriers  and 
blacksmiths,  1  saddler,  1  wagoner,  67  pri- 
vates ;  total  commissioned,  3  ;  total  enlist- 
ed, 84 ;  aggregate,  87. 

There  are  5  regiments  of  Artillery,  each 
regiment  having  1  colonel,  1  lieutenant- 
colonel,  3  majors,  1  adjutant,  (extra  lieu- 
tenant,) 1  regimental  quartermaster,  (extra 
lieutenant,)  12  captains,  24  first  lieutenants, 
13  second  lieutenants,  1  sergeant-major,  1 
quartermaster-sergeant,  1  chief  musician,  2 
principal  musicians,  12  first  sergeants,  12 
company  quartermaster-sergeants,  50  ser- 
geants, 48  corporals,  24  musicians,  24  arti- 
ficers, 12  wagoners,  and  562  privates  ;  total 
commissioned,  56 ;  total  enlisted,  749  ;  ag- 
gregate, 805.  To  each  regiment  there  are 


LIFE   IN   THE   ARMY   AND   NAVY.  331 

12  companies,  one  of  which  is  mounted  and 
is  called  a  Light  Battery.  A  company  of 
Artillery  consists  of  1  captain,  2  first  lieu- 
tenants, 1  second  lieutenant,  (Light  Bat- 
tery has  2,)  1  first  sergeant,  1  company 
quartermaster-sergeant,  4  sergeants,  (Light 
Battery  has  6,)  4  corporals,  2  musicians,  2 
artificers,  1  wagoner,  45  privates,  (Light 
Battery  has  67;)  total  commissioned  4, 
(Light  Battery  5 ;)  total  enlisted  60,  (Light 
Battery  84 ;  aggregate,  64,  (Light  Battery, 
89.) 

There  are  25  regiments  of  Infantry,  each 
having  1  colonel,  1  lieutenant-colonel,  1 
major,  1  adjutant,  (extra  lieutenant,)  1  reg- 
imental quartermaster,  (extra  lieutenant,) 
10  captains,  10  first  lieutenants,  10  second 
lieutenants,  1  sergeant-major.  1  quarter- 
master-sergeant, 1  chief  musician,  2  princi- 
pal musicians,  10  first  sergeants,  10  com- 
pany quartermaster  sergeants,  40  sergeants, 
40  corporals,  20  musicians,  20  artificers.  10 
wagoners,  and  450  privates ;  total  commis- 
sioned, 36;  total  enlisted,  605;  aggregate, 


332  LIFE  IN   THE   ARMY  AND   NAVY. 

641.  Each  regiment  has  10  companies ;  to 
each  company  there  are :  1  captain,  1  first 
lieutenant,  1  second  lieutenant,  1  first  ser- 
geant, 1  company  quartermaster-sergeant, 
4  sergeants,  4  corporals,  2  musicians,  2  art- 
ificers, 1  wagoner,  45  privates ;  total  com- 
missioned, 3  ;  total  enlisted,  60 ;  aggregate, 
63. 

Another  branch  of  the  service  is  the  En- 
gineer Battalion,  which  has  1  major,  1  ad- 
jutant, 1  quartermaster,  5  captains,  5  first 
lieutenants,  5  second  lieutenants,  1  sergeant- 
major,  1  quartermaster-sergeant,  50  ser- 
geants, 5  corporals,  10  musicians,  119  pri- 
vates of  the  first  class,  119  privates  of  the 
second  class  ;  total  commissioned,  16  ;  total 
enlisted,  350 ;  aggregate,  366.  >  In  the  Bat- 
talion there  are  5  companies,  each  having  1 
captain,  1  first  lieutenant,  1  second  lieuten- 
ant, 10  sergeants,  10  corporals,  2  musicians, 
24  privates  first  class,  24  privates  second 
class ;  total  commissioned,  3 ;  total  enlisted, 
70 ;  aggregate,  73. 

The  President  is  by  law  Commander-in- 


LIFE  IN   THE  ARMY   AND   NAVY.  333 

Chief  of  the  Army.  To  assist  him  in  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  laws  in  so  far  as  they  relate 
to  the  army  in  its  control,  subsistence  and 
supply,  a  Secretary  of  War  is  appointed 
by  him,  through  whom  he  exercises  a  gen- 
eral supervision.  To  facilitate  this  a  De- 
partment of  War  has  been  established, 
which  is  sub-divided  into  the  following  staff 
departments  or  corps  : 

1.  Adjutant  General's  Department. 

2.  Inspector  General's  Department. 

3.  Bureau  of  Military  Justice. 

4.  Quartermaster's  Department. 

5.  Subsistence  Department. 

6.  Medical  Department. 

7.  Pay  Department, 

8.  Signal  Officer. 

9.  Chief  of  Staff  to  the  General  of  the 
Army. 

10.  Corps  of  Engineers. 

11.  Ordnance  Department. 

The  general  staff  is  the  central  point  of 
military  administration.  It  comprises  all 
the  officers  concerned  in  regulating  the  de- 


334  LIFE  IN   THE  ARMY  AND   NAVY. 

tails  of  the  service,  and  furnishing  the  army 
with  the  means  necessary  for  its  subsist- 
ence, comfort,  mobility  and  action. 

All  general  orders  which  emanate  from 
the  headquarters  of  the  army,  the  orders  of 
detail,  of  instruction,  of  movement,  and  all 
general  regulations  for  the  army,  are  com- 
municated to  the  troops  through  the  office 
of  the  Adjutant  General. 

The  Adjutant  General  is  charged  with 
the  record  of  military  appointments,  pro- 
motions, resignations,  deaths  and  other  cas- 
ualties ;  with  the,  registry  and  filling  up  of 
commissions,  and  with  their  distribution; 
with  the  records  which  relate  to  the  per- 
sonel  of  the  army,  and  to  the  military  his- 
tory of  every  officer  and  soldier ;  with  the 
duties  connected  with  the  recruiting  ser- 
vice ;  the  registry  of  the  names  of  soldiers; 
their  enlistment  and  descriptive  lists,  and 
of  deaths,  desertions,  discharges,  &c. ;  with 
the  preservation  of  monthly  returns  of  reg- 
iments and  posts,  and  the  muster-rolls  of 
companies ;  with  receipts  and  examination 


LIFE   IN   THE   ARMY   AND   NAVY.  335 

of  applications  for  pension,  previous  to  their 
being  sent  to  the  Pension  Office,  and  of  in- 
ventories of  the  effects  of  deceased  soldiers. 

The  annual  returns  of  the  militia  of.  the 
several  States  and  Territories ;  of  the  ord- 
nance, arms,  accoutrements,  and  munitions 
of  war  appertaining  to  the  same,  required 
by  law  to  be  made  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  are  filed,  and  the  general 
returns  of  the  militia  annually  required  to 
be  laid  before  Congress,  are  also  prepared 
and  consolidated  in  this  ofjice. 

The  Inspector  General's  Department  is 
charged  with  the  duty  of  inspecting  and 
reporting  upon  the  condition  of  the  forts 
with  their  armaments,  of  the  state  of  dis- 
cipline of  the  troops — in  short,  upon  the 
whole  "  material  and  personel"  of  the  army, 
and  to  report  whether  or  not  the  prescribed 
rules,  regulations  and  orders  for  its  govern- 
ment are  properly  carried  into  effect. 

In  the  office  of  the  Judge  Advocate  Gen- 
eral, under  whose  charge  is  the  Bureau  of 
Military  Justice,  the  proceedings  of  all 


336  LIFE   IN    THE    ARMY   AND   NAVY. 

courts  martial,  courts  of  inquiry  and  mili- 
tary commissions  are  received,  revised,  re- 
corded and  reported  upon.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  Judge  Advocate  General  to  report  at 
once  for  the  action  of  the  Secretary  of  War, 
all  fatal  irregularities  in  proceedings,  and 
illegal  or  unusual  sentences.  When  called 
upon  by  the  proper  authority,  he  gives  an 
opinion  on  questions  of  construction  of  mil- 
itary law ;  and  through  him  all  communi- 
cations pertaining  to  questions  of  military 
justice  should  be  addressed. 

The  Quartermaster  General's  Department 
furnishes  to  the  army  its  transportation,  of 
whatever  nature,  quarters,  fuel,  stationery, 
&c.,  and  pays  for  rent  of  quarters  and  for 
all  materials  to  be  used  in  the  construction 
of  buildings  for  its  use.  To  that  office  are 
sent  all  reports  and  returns  of  property 
purchased,  issued,  worn  out  in  service,  lost, 
sold,  destroyed  or  remaining  on  hand,  and 
there  are  approved  all  contracts  for  pur- 
chases connected  with  the  above. 

The  Subsistence  Department,  as  its  name 


LIFE  IN    THE   ARMY  AND   NAVY.  337 

implies,  has  charge  of  the  furnishing  of 
subsistence  to  troops,  all  reports  and  returns 
necessary  to  the  end  that  stores  may  be 
properly  accounted  for,  are  made  to  this 
office,  and  here  all  contracts  for  their  pur- 
chase are  approved. 

The  Medical  Department  or  Surgeon 
General's  Office  has  charge  of  the  selection 
of  medical  officers  for  detail,  and  to  it  all 
returns  and  reports  in  regard  to  sick  and 
wounded  officers  and  soldiers,  and  medical 
stores,  are  made.  With  regard  to  the  other 
bureaus  or  officers  which  have  been  men- 
tioned, their  duties  are  described  by  their 
titles. 

We  may  further  remark,  in  brief,  that 
the  American  army  is  divided  into  Divis- 
ions and  Departments  commanded  by  Gen- 
erals ;  that,  in  times  of  peace  it  is  chiefly 
employed  in  occupying  the  various  forts 
and  defences  of  the  country  and  in  keeping 
peace  with  the  Indians  on  the  frontiers ; 
that,  after  forty  years  of  service,  the  officers 
of  the  army  may  at  their  own  request  be 


338  LIFE   IN   THE   ARMY   AND    NAVY. 

retired,  receiving  seventy-five  per  cent,  of 
their  pay ;  that  members  of  Congress  desig- 
nate the  largest  proportion  of  those  who 
are  admitted  to  the  West  Point  Academy, 
which  is  the  regular  school  for  the  educa- 
tion of  officers  for  the  arrny.  When,  in 
time  of  war,  it  is  necessary  to  have  volun- 
teers, they  are  called  for  by  Proclamation 
of  the  President,  and  the  State  Governors 
immediately  answer  the  call,  and  send  the 
proportion  assigned  to  them,  which  are 
chiefly  composed  of  the  militia  or  State 
troops ;  and  after  the  war,  these  volunteer 
troops  are  disbanded  and  return  to  the  or- 
dinary avocations  of  life,  which  fact  has 
been  considered  by  foreigners  as  one  of  the 
marvels  of  the  American  Government.  The 
regular  army  is  supplied  with  soldiers  by 
enlistment,  and  after  entering  the  service, 
no  man  can  leave  it  without  the  consent  of 
Government,  nor  without  sufficient  cause. 
With  regard  to  the  pay  of  the  army,  which 
is  always  enhanced  by  long  service,  we  sub- 
mit the  following  :  General,  $13,500  ;  Lieu- 


LIFE   IN   THE   ARMY  AND   NAVY.  339 

tenant-General,  $11,000 ;  Major-General, 
$7,500;  Brigadier-General,  $5,500;  Col- 
onel, $3,500 ;  Lieutenant-Colonel,  $3,000  ; 
Major,  $2,500 ;  Captains,  $1800  and  $2000; 
Regimental  Adjutant  and  Quartermaster, 
each  $1.800;  First  Lieutenants,  $1500  and 
$1600;  Second  Lieutenants,  $1400  and 
$1500;  and  Chaplains,  $1500.  The  pay 
of  the  common  soldier  is  thirteen  dollars 
per  month  with  rations.  There  are  twenty- 
five  armories  and  arsenals  in  the  country, 
all  in  command  of  competent  officers,  and 
the  military  Departments  of  the  Govern- 
ment number  fifteen,  and  embrace  the  whole 
Union.  The  amount  required  for  support- 
ing the  military  establishment  during  1872 
is  about  twenty-nine  millions  of  dollars. 

As  the  War  Department  is  the  centre  of 
the  Army,  so  is  the  Navy  Department  the 
fountain  head  of  the  Navy.  The  duties  of 
this  Department  are  distributed  through  the 
Secretary's  office  and  eight  bureaus,  name- 
ly :  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks,  which  has 
charge  of  the  navy-yards,  including  the 


340  LIFE   IN   THE  ARMY   AND   NAVY. 

docks,  wharves,  buildings  and  machinery, 
and  also  of  a  Naval  Asylum;  Office  of  Navi- 
gation, which  has  charge  of  the  maps,  charts, 
flags,  signals,  &c.,  and  also  of  the  Naval 
Academy,  Naval  Observatory,  and  Nautical 
Almanac;  Office  of  Ordnance,  which  has 
charge  of  ordnance  and  ordnance  stores,  the 
manufacture  and  purchase  of  cannon,  guns, 
powder,  shot,  shell,  &c. ;  Office  of  Construc- 
tion and  Repair,  having  charge  of  the  con- 
struction of  vessels  of  war ;  Office  of  Equip- 
ment and  Recruiting,  which  has  charge  of 
the  enlistment  of  men  for  the  Navy,  the 
equipment  of  vessels,  anchors,  cables,  rig- 
ging, sails,  coal,  &c.;  Office  of  Provisions  and 
Clothing;  and  Office  of  Steam  Engineering ; 
Office  of  Medicine  and  Surgery,  the  duties  of 
which  last  two  are  described  by  their  titles. 
There  is  attached  to  the  Navy  Department 
what  is  called  the  Marine  Corps,  whose  du- 
ties are  allied  to  those  of  the  Army,  only 
that  they  are  performed  on  board  ship  or 
at  the  navy-yards ;  also  a  National  Obser- 
vatory which  has  earned  a  world-wide  rep- 


LIFE  IN  THE  ARMY  AND    NAVY.  341 

utation ;  and  also  an  Hydrographic  Office, 
which  with  the  Observatory  annually  pub- 
lishes volumes  of  scientific  information  of 
great  value. 

The  largest  vessel  in  the  United  States 
navy  has  a  displacement  of  5,440  feet,  car- 
ries 12  guns,  and  like  the  majority  in  the 
service  is  a  screw  steamer.  Some  other 
ships,  however,  carry  45  guns.  Of  those 
ranking  as  first  rates  there  are  five ;  second 
rates,  forty ;  third  rates,  forty-three ;  fourth 
rates,  ten ;  to  which  may  be  added  the 
iron  clads,  receiving  and  practice  ships, 
supply  vessels  and  tugs,  making  in  all  one 
hundred  and  seventy-nine,  and  carrying 
in  the  aggregate  1,390  guns.  The  offi- 
cers of  the  navy,  to  which  we  affix  their 
"at  sea"  salaries,  are  as  follows  :  1  Admi- 
ral, $13,000;  1  Vice  Admiral,  $9,000;  12 
Rear  Admirals,  $6,000 ;  24  Commodores, 
$5,000;  50  Captains,  $4,500;  89  Com- 
manders, $3.50U;  164  Lieutenant  Com- 
manders, $2,800;  201  Lieutenants,  $2,400; 
75  Masters,  $1,800;  68  Ensigns,  $1,200: 


342  LIFE   IN   THE   ARMY   AND    NAVY. 

113  Midshipmen,  $1,000;  150  in  Medical 
Corps,  whose  salaries  are  widely  various ; 
134  in  the  Pay  Corps,  with  various  salaries  ; 
and  241  in  the  Engineer  Corps,  together 
with  an  ample  supply  of  Naval  Construc- 
tors, Chaplains,  Professors  of  Mathematics, 
and  Civil  Engineers,  whose  salaries  range 
from  seventeen  hundred  to  four  thousand 
four  hundred  dollars,  and  are  increased 
with  length  of  service.  The  pay  of  com- 
mon seamen  is  twenty-one  and  a  half  dol- 
lars per  month,  and  while  the  subordinate 
grades  in  the  service  number  fifty-seven, 
their  pay  ranges  from  eight  to  fifty-six 
dollars  per  month.  The  Academy  where 
young  men  are  fitted  for  service  in  the 
Navy  is  located  at  Annapolis,  and  is  un- 
der rules,  in  regard  to  admission,  allied  to 
those  of  the  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point.  Of  complete  Navy  Yards  there 
are  eight  in  the  United  States ;  five  fleets 
are  now  doing  duty  in  various  quarters 
of  the  globe ;  and  within  the  last  year 
several  scientific  expeditions  have  been 


LIFE   IX   THE   ARMY   AND   NAVY.  343 

fitted  out  as  follows,  viz :  one  to  survey 
the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  and  another  to 
survey  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  both  of  which 
have  in  view  the  making  of  a  canal  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans ;  and  an  ex- 
pedition has  also  been  fitted  out  for  explor- 
ations towards  the  North  Pole.  Indirectly 
connected  with  the  Navy  is  a  bureau  called 
the  Light-House  Board,  with  which,  as  an 
active  member,  has  hitherto  been  connected 
Adm\ral  Thornton  A.  Jenkins,  but  who  has 
recently  been  assigned  to  the  fleet  in  the 
waters  of  China  and  Japan.  Without  going 
more  fully  into  the  subject,  for  want  of 
space,  it  only  remains  for  us  to  add  in  con- 
clusion, that  the  sum  of  money  which  will 
be  required  to  support  the  American  Naval 
Establishment  during  the  year  1872  will 
be  about  twenty  millions  of  dollars. 


PART  ELEVENTH 


LIFE  IN  THE  LEADING  CITIES. 


THE  total  number  of  incorporated  cities 
in  the  United  States  is  four  hundred  and 
nine,  but  many  of  them  do  not  contain  more 
than  two  thousand  inhabitants.  By  far 
the  largest  proportion  of  foreigners  who 
come  to  this  country  across  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  enter  the  country  at  the  port  of  New 
York,  which  is  the  largest  city  in  the  Wes- 
tern Hemisphere.  It  was  founded  by  the 
Dutch,  and  called  by  them  New  Amster- 
dam. It  occupies  the  greater  part  of  an 
island  called  Manhattan,  which  is  thirteen 
and  a  half  miles  long,  and  contains  an  area 
of  twenty-two  miles.  The  cities  of  Brook- 
lyn and  Jersey  City,  and  several  other 
towns,  although  having  each  a  government 


348  LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES. 

of  its  own,  are  in  reality  portions  of  New 
York,  and  their  combined  population  is  not 
far  from  one  and  a  half  millions.  Accord- 
ing to  the  last  census,  the  population  of 
New  York  by  itself,  was  942,292 ;  of  whom 
523,198  were  born  in  the  United  States, 
and  484,109  in  the  State  of  New  York. 
Within  eight  miles  of  the  commercial  me- 
tropolis, in  New  Jersey,  is  a  city  called 
Newark,  of  one  hundred  thousand  people, 
but  it  is  so  closely  identified  with  the  for- 
mer in  its  business  and  social  interests  as 
almost  to  be  considered  a  suburb  of  New 
York.  During  the  last  fifteen  years  the 
number  of  emigrants  arriving  there  from 
various  parts  of  the  world,  was  about  2,341,- 
000,  the  arrivals  for  1870  alone  having 
been  211,190,  and  it  is  estimated  that  about 
four-fifths  of  these  foreigners  found  perma- 
nent homes  in  the  various  States  of  the 
interior.  The  principal  street  of  New  York, 
which  runs  through  its  entire  length  like  a 
back-bone,  is  called  Broadway,  and  for  sev- 
eral miles  is  completely  lined  with  iron  and 


LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING  CITIES.  349 

marble  buildings,  devoted  chiefly  to  busi- 
ness pursuits,  and  winning  for  it  the  repu- 
tation of  being  one  of  the  handsomest  and 
wealthiest  streets  in  the  world.  But  much 
of  this  splendor  is  also  found  in  all  its  sub- 
ordinate streets  and  avenues,  where  the 
houses  are  generally  built  of  brick ;  and  as 
a  street  for  private  residences,  its  Fifth 
Avenue  is  claimed  to  be  unsurpassed.  Pro- 
jecting, as  this  city  does,  into  a  splendid  har- 
bor, where  the  fortifications  are  strong  and 
imposing,  it  is  perpetually  surrounded  with 
a  forest  of  shipping,  which  gives  the  stran- 
ger an  adequate  idea  of  its  very  extensive 
commerce.  The  value  of  its  real  and  per- 
sonal estate  has  not  been  definitely  settled, 
but  has  been  estimated  at  nearly  eight  hun- 
dred millions  of  dollars,  and  the  rate  of  tax- 
ation is  two  per  cent,  per  annum.  It  is 
supplied  with  pure  water  by  an  aqueduct 
which  cost  more  than  fifteen  millions  of  dol- 
lars, the  water  pipes  of  which  measure 
some  two  hundred  and  seventy  miles.  It 
has  one  hundred  miles  of  sewers  and  more 


350  LIFE  IN  THE  LEADING   CITIES. 

than  two  hundred  miles  of  paved  streets. 
Its  temples  for  religious  worship  are  numer- 
ous and  many  of  them  very  beautiful,  the 
church  property  of  the  city  reaching  in 
value  nearly  fifteen  millions  of  dollars.  Its 
principal  park  known  as  Central  Park  is 
said  to  be  equal  to  the  best  in  Europe,  and 
its  principal  financial  street,  known  as  Wall 
street,  although  not  more  than  half  a  mile 
in  length,  has  a  power  which  is  felt  in  the 
remotest  corners  of  the  earth.  Its  hospitals 
and  other  benevolent  institutions  are  num- 
erous and  liberally  conducted  in  every  par- 
ticular ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  its 
institutions  of  learning,  ranging  from  first- 
class  colleges  to  the  best  of  district  or  com- 
mon schools.  It  is  abundantly  supplied 
with  libraries,  many  of  which  are  very 
large,  and  all  of  them  are  conducted  on  the 
most  liberal  principles.  Its  manufacturing 
establishments  are  numberless ;  its  fire 
department  is  noted  for  its  efficiency  and 
is  founded  on  the  voluntary  system;  and 
there  is  a  lively  military  spirit  among  its 


LIFE   IN   THE  LEADING  CITIES.  351 

young  men,  and  its  militia  regiments  rival 
veteran  regulars  in  their  drill.  Its  police 
force  is  of  the  first  order  and  is  managed 
by  commissioners.  Policemen  are  appointed 
during  good  behavior,  and  officers  rise  from 
the  ranks.  Patrolmen  are  paid  eight  hun- 
dred dollars  per  annum,  sergeants  nine 
hundred,  captains  twelve  hundred,  inspec- 
tors two  thousand,  and  a  general  superin- 
tendent five  thousand  dollars  a  year.  There 
are  about  seven  hundred  police  stations, 
four  hundred  and  twelve  miles  of  streets, 
and  eleven  miles  of  piers  in  the  city.  Its 
newspapers  are  abundant  and  taken  in  the 
aggregate  are  probably  more  influential  for 
good  or  evil  than  any  similar  number  on 
the  globe.  Its  markets  for  the  necessaries 
of  life  are  fully  supplied  with  everything 
that  can  be  desired,  in  the  way  of  meats, 
flour,  fruit  and  fish.  Its  government,  al- 
though resting  upon  the  most  liberal  pro- 
visions, has  for  many  years  been  a  kind  of 
political  arena,  in  which  unworthy  men 
have  obtained  and  exercised  the  most  dan- 


352  LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES. 

gerous  powers,  and  at  the  moment  of  writ- 
ing these  lines,  a  number  of  men  who  were 
lately  at  the  head  of  the  city  government, 
are  confined  in  a  common  prison  for  robbing 
their  fellow-citizens  to  an  enormous  extent. 
While  it  is  true  that  New  York  is  very 
much  of  a  cosmopolitan  city,  it  has  been 
estimated  that  two-thirds  of  its  inhabitants 
are  natives  of  the  United  States.  It  is, 
however,  pre-eminently  a  commercial  city, 
and  in  several  respects  is  equal  to  London. 
The  post  office  of  New  York  is  the  most 
important  in  the  country ;  and  its  customs 
receipts  amount  to  about  three-fifths  of  the 
total  in  the  United  States.  The  manufac- 
tures of  the  city  constitute  a  leading  element 
of  its  prosperity  and  wealth.  The  most 
numerous  class  of  workmen  are  those  en- 
gaged in  making  wearing  apparel ;  next  to 
whom  come  the  workmen  in  iron  and  met- 
aJs ;  then  the  chemists ;  workmen  in  leather, 
steam  machinery  and  lumber ;  navigators ; 
workmen  in  fibrous  substances,  glass  and 
pottery ;  and  the  manufacturers  of  cars  and 


LIFE   IN   THE  LEADING  CITIES.  353 

wagons;  so  on, — to  an  almost  unlimited 
extent.  Nowhere  is  the  habit  of  eating 
away  from  home,  so  general  as  in  New  York, 
owing  to  the  great  distance  between  the 
dwelling  houses  and  the  places  of  business ; 
and  this  habit  has  made  eating  houses, 
lunch  rooms,  refectories,  oyster  cellars,  and 
bar-rooms,  a  prominent  feature  of  the  town. 
Its  hotels  are  quite  magnificent,  and  its 
boarding  houses  as  comfortable  as  any  in 
the  world.  The  eating  houses  are  found 
everywhere,  and  are  frequented  by  the 
millionaire  as  well  as  the  vagabond.  The 
city  government  is  vested  in  a  Mayor  and 
Boards  of  Aldermen  and  Councilmen,  who 
are  annually  elected  by  the  people.  While 
it  is  true  that  in  times  of  high  political  ex- 
citement, it  is  sometimes  afflicted  with  mobs 
and  riots,  the  din  of  business  always  ceases 
on  the  approach  of  the  Sabbath,  and  that 
day  is  observed  as  a  day  of  rest,  of  church- 
going  and  of  recreation  by  its  teeming  thou- 
sands. The  spring  and  autumn,  are  the 
two  great  seasons  for  business ;  winter,  the 


354  LIFE  IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES. 

special  season  for  amusements  and  all  sorts 
of  gaiety;  while  the  summer  is  compara- 
tively sluggish,  although  even  then,  the 
turmoil  of  business  is  far  from  being  dead. 
The  second  largest  city  in  the  United 
States  is  Philadelphia,  which  was  founded 
by  William  Penn  in  1682,  and  contains 
674,022  inhabitants,  of  whom  490,398  were 
born  in  the  United  States,  and  428,250  in 
Pennsylvania.  It  stands  on  a  plain  between 
the  rivers  Delaware  and  Schuylkill,  and 
has  several  suburban  cities,  the  whole  of 
which  form  one  municipality,  containing 
120  square  miles.  The  streets  of  the  city 
proper  are  laid  out  in  regular  order,  and  the 
houses  are  more  distinguished  for  their 
neatness  and  comfort  than  for  their  rich- 
ness or  extravagance,  and  in  this  particular 
are  in  keeping  with  the  character  of  the 
population.  The  city  is  well  supplied  with 
parks,  one  of  which,  for  its  collection  of 
trees  and  scenes  of  beauty,  is  considered  a 
successful  rival  of  the  great  Central  Park 
of  New  York.  Its  public  buildings  are  nu- 


LIFE   IX  THE   LEADING   CITIES.  355 

merous  and  beautiful ;  one  of  them,  called 
Girard  College,  was  built  and  the  institu- 
tion endowed  by  one  of  its  citizens  alone ; 
but  the  chief  boast  of  the  inhabitants  is  In- 
dependence Hall,  which  was  the  meeting 
place  of  Congress  during  the  earlier  history 
of  the  American  Republic.  The  churches 
are  also  numerous,  all  the  religious  denom- 
inations being  well  supplied,  but  this  is  es- 
pecially the  case  in  regard  to  the  Quakers, 
who  have  hitherto  been  so  numerous  and 
influential,  as  to  have  given  to  their  city 
the  name  of  Quaker  City.  *  The  literary  and 
scientific  institutions  of  Philadelphia  have 
always  occupied  a  high  position,  and  the 
cultured  character  of  its  inhabitants  has 
always  been  manifested  by  its  rich  libraries 
and  galleries  of  art,  and  by  the  upright 
character  of  its  press.  It  was  here  that 
Benjamin  Franklin  lived,  and  worked  as  a 
printer,  and  won  his  great  fame  as  a  philo- 
sopher. From  the  earliest  times  the  central 
mint  of  the  United  States  has  been  estab- 
lished here,  and  the  city  has  borne  an  im- 


356  LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES. 

portant  part  in  the  financial  history  of  the 
country.  Because  of  its  remoteness  from 
the  Atlantic  ocean,  it  may  not  compete 
with  New  York  in  its  foreign  commerce, 
but  it  carries  on  an  immense  trade  with  the 
interior  country,  and  is  a  noted  terminus 
for  unnumbered  railroads  and  canals.  As 
a  depot  for  the  exportation  of  coal  it  is 
without  a  rival;  and  it  has  always  been 
famous  for  the  extent  of  its  book-publishing 
business.  Within  the  last  few  years  Phil- 
adelphia has  greatly  increased  its  manufac- 
turing establishments,  until  its  inhabitants 
now  claim  that  they  can  now  produce  every- 
thing that  may  be  required  for  the  comfort 
or  convenience  of  man ;  indeed,  in  the  vari- 
ety and  extent  of  its  manufactures  it  is 
said  to  be  unequalled  by  any  other  city  in 
the  Union.  On  this  point,  we  submit  one 
illustration,  which  is,  that  it  contains  the 
two  largest  establishments  in  the  world  for 
the  manufacture  of  locomotives,  which  give 
employment  to  about  four  thousand  hands, 
and  can  build  one  of  those  wonderful  en- 


LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES.  357 

gines  in  a  single  day.  The  capital  invested 
in  its  manufacturing  establishments  is  esti- 
mated at  $300,000,000.  While  the  inhab- 
itants of  this  city  are  noted  for  their  peace- 
ful disposition  and  for  their  love  of  order, 
it  is  also  true  that  it  has  been  the  scene  of 
many  political  or  religious  disturbances, 
but  which  in  these  latter  days  have  been 
quite  unknown.  Another  of  the  character- 
istics of  this  city  is  the  total  absence  of 
tenement  houses,  and  the  existence  of  com- 
fortable homes  for  the  laboring  population. 
As  one  of  her  public  men  informs  us,  every 
laborer,  who  has  a  family,  dwells  under  a 
separate  roof,  which  is  most  frequently  his 
own — in  a  house  lighted  by  gas,  and  sup- 
plied with  an  abundance  of  pure  water. 
As  this  city  is  pre-eminently  a  producing 
city,  so  are  its  native  and  foreign  inhabi- 
tants distinguished  for  their  industry,  and 
there  is  not  in  the  whole  land,  probably, 
any  other  crowded  city  where  among  the 
working  classes  more  genuine  comfort  and 
contentment  can  be  found. 


358  LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES. 

The  next  city  on  our  list  is  Boston, 
which  contains  250,526  inhabitants,  of 
whom  172,450  were  born  in  the  United 
States,  and  127,620  in*the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts. If,  however,  we  should  add  to 
it  the  various  towns  which  adjoin  it,  the 
population  would  be  nearly  double.  It 
was  first  settled  in  1630  by  the  Puritans, 
and  is  the  leading  city  of  New  England, 
upon  which  it  has  always  exerted  a  para- 
mount influence.  It  bore  a  very  important 
part  in  the  history  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution, and  events  of  great  importance  have 
transpired  within  its  limits  and  in  its  vicin- 
ity. Formerly  it  was  more  closely  identi- 
fied with  the  commerce  of  the  East,  than 
any  other  American  city,  and  at  the  pres- 
ent time  ranks  next  to  New  York  in  the 
extent  of  its  foreign  commerce.  The  city 
is  chiefly  situated  on  a  peninsula,  and  some 
of  the  adjacent  parts,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  numerous  bridges,  rise  to  the 
height  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  harbor,  which  is  deep,  con- 


LIFE  IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES.  359 

venient  and  secure.  The  streets  were  origi- 
nally laid  out  upon  no  systematic  plan,  and 
being  accommodated  to  the  unevenness  of 
the  surface,  many  of  them  are  crooked  and 
narrow,  but  these  defect  are  being  annually 
remedied.  Many  of  the  public  buildings  are 
handsome,  but  some  of  them  are  more  fam- 
ous for  their  associations  than  their  impos- 
ing appearance.  The  State  house  occupies 
the  apex  of  the  city,  and  presents  a  com- 
manding view  from  the  sea  and  surround- 
ing country ;  and  its  Faneuil  Hall  is  univer- 
sally known  as  the  "  Cradle  of  Liberty," 
because  it  was  here  that  the  orators  of  the 
Revolution  fired  the  hearts  of  the  people 
against  England.  One  of  its  leading  land- 
marks is  the  monument  of  Bunker  Hill, 
where  was  fought  a  famous  battle.  Its 
wharves  and  warehouses  are  on  a  scale  of 
magnitude  surpassed  by  no  other  city  of 
the  same  size.  Its  churches  are  numerous 
and  many  of  them  beautiful,  the  largest 
number  of  them  belonging  to  the  Unitarian 
denomination.  It  has  an  extensive  park 


360  LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES. 

called  "  Boston  Common,"  which  is  a  de- 
lightful resort  for  the  inhabitants  during  the 
vernal  months.  With  regard  to  literary, 
scientific  and  educational  institutions,  the 
city  is  most  abundantly  supplied.  Its 
schools  have  a  high  reputation  and  it  pub- 
lishes more  than  one  hundred  periodicals. 
Among  its  many  libraries  is  one,  the  largest, 
which  is  entirely  free  to  all  who  may  desire 
to  enjoy  its  advantages ;  and  the  fact  that 
the  famous  Harvard  University  is  located 
in  one  of  its  suburbs,  called  Cambridge, 
has  greatly  tended  to  give  to  it  its  high 
reputation  as  a  seat  of  learning.  Its  be- 
nevolent institutions  are  also  numerous  and 
richly  endowed,  and  it  has  taken  a  promi- 
nent part  in  providing  for  the  wants  and 
intellectual  elevation  of  the  blind  and  the 
comforts  of  the  insane.  Its  infirmaries  have 
always  borne  a  high  reputation.  The  ice 
trade  is  a  Boston  invention  and  is  said  to 
have  secured  for  it,  the  important  trade 
which  it  enjoys,  with  Calcutta,  and  other 
portions  of  the  East.  On  the  score  of  en- 


LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING  CITIES.  361 

terprise  and  culture  the  inhabitants  of  Bos- 
ton, have  no  superiors,  and  that  circum- 
stance has  tended  to  make  them  somewhat 
clannish,  or  exclusive  in  their  manners  and 
conversation  and  their  modes  of  doing  busi- 
ness, and  hence  it  it  that  the  outside  world, 
especially  the  cosmopolitan  citizens  of  New 
York,  occasionally  indulge  in  a  little  ridicule 
at  the  expense  of  the  Bostonians.     It  is  a 
thriving  city,  and  by  means  of  seven  or 
eight  great  lines  of  railway,   carries  on  an 
important  trade  in  manufactures,  with  the 
interior   country.     It   is  a  poor   place   for 
idlers  and  beggars,  and  yet  the  most  liberal 
provision  is  made  for  the   deserving  poor. 
While  this  city  does  much  to  promote  the 
fine  arts,  it  claims  a  reputation  of  its  own, 
for  what  it  has  done  in  developing  the  art  of 
music,  and  it  boasts  of  an  organ  which  is 
the  largest  in  the  world. 

Another  of  the  leading  cities  of  America 
is  Baltimore,  which  has  a  population  of 
267,354,  of  whom  210,870  were  born  in 
the  United  States,  and  187,650  in  the  State 


362  LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES. 

of  Maryland.  It  was  founded  by  the  Ro- 
man Catholics  in  1729 ;  is  admirably  situ- 
ated both  for  foreign  and  internal  trade, 
having  a  spacious  and  secure  harbor,  and 
occupying  a  central  position  as  regards  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States.  The 
site  of  the  city  is  picturesque,  covering  a 
number  of  eminences;  and  although  con- 
nected with  the  Northern  and  Western 
States,  by  its  business  ramifications,  it  has 
hitherto  been  considered  a  representative 
of  the  Southern  States.  It  was  here  that 
the  first  gun  was  fired,  by  a  mob,  at  the 
commencement  of  the  late  Civil  War,  when 
a  regiment  of  troops  from  Massachusetts 
was  assaulted,  on  their  way  to  Washington. 
Its  proximity  to  the  Seat  of  Government, 
from  which  it  is  only  thirty-eight  miles  dis- 
tant, has  added  to  its  importance  and  made 
it  popular  with  the  officials  of  the  nation. 
From  the  number  and  prominence  of  its 
Monuments  it  has  been  called  the  "Monu- 
mental City."  The  most  imposing  of  these 
is  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  George  Wash- 


LIFE  IN  THE  LEADING  CITIES.  363 

ington,  which  stands  three  hundred  and 
twelve  feet  above  the  adjacent  harbor ;  and 
the  city  contains  a  shot-tower  which  is  two 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  high,  the  highest  in 
the  world.  The  churches  of  this  city  are 
numerous,  and  many  of  them  beautiful  and 
imposing;  and  it  boasts  of  one  large  Park, 
which  is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its 
scenery,  and  is  a  successful  rival  of  those 
in  New  York  and  Boston.  The  manufac- 
turing facilities  of  Baltimore  are  uncommon 
and  quite  equal  to  its  commercial  advan- 
tages. In  its  benevolent  and  educational 
institutions  it  is  behind  none  of  its  sister 
cities,  and  its  name  is  associated  with  many 
men  of  culture,  connected  with  literature, 
science,  and  the  fine  arts.  It  was  here  that 
the  famous  George  Peabody  first  established 
himself  in  business,  and  where  he  founded 
one  of  the  largest  educational  institutions 
associated  with  his  name. 

Among  the  representative  cities  of  Amer- 
ica is  New  Orleans.  It  was  founded  by  the 
French  in  1717,  and  has  a  population  of 


364  LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIE8. 

191,418.  Its  site  is  on  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  great  Mississippi  river,  about  one 
hundred  miles  above  the  mouth  of  that 
stream,  and  as  it  forms  a  half  circle,  has 
been  called  the  Crescent  City.  Many  parts 
of  it  are  so  low  and  flat  that  the  waters 
are  kept  from  overflowing  it  only  by  arti- 
ficial embankments.  It  possesses  unrivalled 
natural  advantages  for  internal  trade,  and 
it  is  visited  by  vessels  from  every  quarter 
of  the  globe.  Every  description  of  craft 
is  employed  in  transporting  to  it  the  rich 
products  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  many 
tributaries,  whose  navigable  waters  are  not 
less  than  fifteen  thousand  miles  in  extent, 
and  embrace  every  variety  of  climate.  Not 
only  is  it  the  receptacle  of  countless  varie- 
ties of  produce  from  the  interior,  but  is 
considered  the  largest  cotton  market  in  the 
world.  The  particular  spot  where  all  this 
merchandise  is  received,  and  from  which  it 
is  shipped  to  foreign  ports  is  called  the  Le- 
vee ;  it  extends  along  the  river  for  miles, 
and  because  of  the  strange  commingling  of 


LIFE  IN   THE   LEADING  CITIES.  365 

ships  and  steamboats  and  other  kinds  of 
vessels,  and  also  on  account  of  its  vast  pro- 
portions and  never-ceasing  bustle  has  been 
pronounced  by  travellers  as  one  of  the  won- 
ders of  America.  It  abounds  in  handsome 
buildings,  and  its  various  public  institutions 
rest  on  liberal  foundations.  On  account  of 
its  low  situation  and  warm  climate  it  is  sub- 
ject to  annual  visitations  from  the  yellow 
fever,  which  is  frequently  fatal  to  strangers. 
Any  description  of  this  city  would  be  in- 
complete without  a  notice  of  its  cemeteries. 
Each  one  is  enclosed  with  a  thick  brick  wall 
of  arched  cavities,  made  just  large  enough 
to  admit  a  single  coffin,  and  rising  to  the 
height  of  twelve  feet.  Within  the  enclos- 
ure are  crowded  the  tombs,  which  are  built 
wholly  above  the  ground,  and  are  from  one 
to  three  stories  high.  This  method  of  sep- 
ulture is  a  necessity,  for  the  earth  is  so 
universally  saturated  with  water,  that  none 
but  paupers  are  consigned  to  the  earth. 
The  population  of  the  city  is  exceedingly 
varied;  its  chief  resident  inhabitants  are 


366  LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES. 

known  as  Creoles  or  the  native  population ; 
and  those  who  are  engaged  in  mercantile 
pursuits,  and  are  successful,  usually  remain 
there  during  the  winter  or  business  months, 
spending  their  summers  among  the  high- 
lands of  the  interior  country.  It  is  also 
thickly  inhabited  by  colored  people,  who 
were  once  in  slavery.  It  was  the  scene  of 
quite  a  famous  battle  in  1815,  between  the 
English  and  the  Americans  under  Andrew 
Jackson,  who  was  victorious  and  subse- 
quently became  President  of  the  United 
States.  The  prevailing  religion  is  Roman 
Catholic,  and  many  churches  are  modeled 
upon  those  of  European  countries ;  and  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  this  city  is  some- 
times called  the  "  Wet  Grave "  and  the 
"  City  of  the  Dead,"  it  is  celebrated  for  its 
continuous  round  of  gaieties,  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  to  its  close. 

On  leaving  New  Orleans,  if  we  pass  up 
the  Mississippi  river  about  twelve  hundred 
miles,  we  come  to  the  city  of  St.  Louis, 
which  contains  310,864  inhabitants.  It 


LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES.  367 

was  founded  by  the  French  far  traders,  and 
possesses  the  peculiarity  of  being  located 
at  the  geographical  centre  of  the  North 
American  Continent ;  and  its  advantages  as 
a  commercial  emporium,  are  probably  not 
surpassed  by  those  of  any  inland  port  in 
the  world.  The  business  transacted  here 
by  means  of  steamboats  and  railroads  is 
enormous ;  the  people  are  cosmopolitan  in 
their  character,  and  not  behind  the  cities  of 
the  Eastern  States,  in  their  industry,  lib- 
erality and  intellectural  culture.  And  what 
we  say  of  St.  Louis,  is  also  true  of  Cincin- 
nati, on  the  Ohio,  with  its  216,239  inhabi- 
tants ;  of  Louisville  on  the  same  river,  with 
its  100,753  inhabitants;  and  of  Chicago, 
on  Lake  Michigan.  With  regard  to  the 
last  named  place,  we  may  remark  that  its 
rapid  growth,  in  twenty-five  years,  from  a 
village  to  a  city  of  nearly  three  hundred 
thousand,  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  age. 
But,  since  the  first  pages  of  this  volume 
were  sent  to  press,  Chicago  has  met  with 
a  calamity  by  fire,  which  has  been  pro- 


LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES. 

nounced  quite  unprecedented.  It  occurred 
in  October,  1871.  and  resulted  in  the  total 
destruction  of  all  the  business  portions  of 
the  city.  More  than  a  hundred  lives  were 
also  lost,  eighty  thousand  persons,  includ- 
ing merchants  and  mechanics,  were  thrown 
out  of  employment  or  reduced  to  beggary 
in  a  single  night,  and  the  total  loss  of  prop- 
erty was  estimated  at  two  hundred  millions 
of  dollars.  It  is  said  to  have  been  the  most 
extensive  fire  that  ever  occurred  in  any 
country,  and  the  sympathy  felt  for  the  suf- 
ferers, called  forth  subscriptions  of  money 
from  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  amounting 
in  the  aggregate  to  many  millions  of  dollars ; 
and  what  was  still  more  wonderful  was  the 
fact  that  the  regular  business  of  the  city 
was  again  in  successful  operation  in  a  very 
few  weeks,  although  it  had  to  be  transacted 
under  many  and  great  disadvantages. 

Having  elsewhere  touched  upon  the 
characteristics  of  Washington,  the  metrop- 
olis of  the  United  States,  with  its  120,000 
inhabitants,  we  conclude  our  list  of  the  lar- 


LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES.  369 

ger  cities,  with  an  allusion  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, which  contains  about  150,000  inhabi- 
tants. The  rapidity  of  its  growth,  can  only 
be  compared  with  that  of  Chicago;  and 
while  the  former  was  chiefly  built  up  by 
the  gold  mines  of  California,  the  latter  owes 
its  prosperity  to  the  agricultural  develop- 
ment of  the  wide  and  fertile  region  of  which 
it  is  the  centre.  The  fact  that  San  Fran- 
cisco is  the  largest  American  seaport  on  the 
Pacific  ocean,  and  that  it  is  at  the  terminus 
of  the  Pacific  Railroad,  gives  it  command  of 
the  commerce  of  all  the  Eastern  nations,  by 
which  advantages  it  will  probably  become 
a  city  of  vast  importance  and  influence. 
From  the  nature  of  its  position,  its  social 
characteristics  are  quite  different  from  those 
of  the  Atlantic  cities,  and  it  is  not  behind 
them  in  any  of  those  qualities  which  give 
power  and  dignity  to  a  city,  yet  it  stands 
quite  alone  in  regard  to  its  Chinese  popula- 
tion. The  high  rates  of  labor  in  this  city 
generally,  and  its  dependence  on  importa- 
tion for  all  its  iron,  brass,  cotton,  hardware 


370  LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING    CITIES. 

and  most  of  its  wool,  leather  and  hard  wood 
lumber,  prevent  the  establishment  of  fac- 
tories, and  all  the  cutlery,  fine  tools  and 
machinery,  glass,  porcelain,  clothing  and 
shoes  are  necessarily  obtained  from  abroad 
at  a  great  expense,  thus  giving  employment 
to  a  large  amount  of  shipping. 

In  our  remarks  thus  far,  we  have  only 
spoken  of  those  American  cities  which  con- 
tain more  than  one  hundred  thousand  in- 
habitants. But  there  are  many  smaller 
cities,  which  have  a  world-wide  fame  on 
account  of  their  beauty,  business  character- 
istics or  historical  associations.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  Charleston,  which 
has  about  fifty  thousand  inhabitants,  is  the 
centre  of  the  rice  producing  country  of 
South  Carolina,  and  in  whose  harbor,  at 
Fort  Sumter,  was  made  the  first  regular 
assault  upon  the  national  forces  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  late  civil  war,  when  the 
city  was  a  great  sufferer; — Savannah,  the 
chief  seaport  of  Georgia  and  the  rival  of 
Charleston,  having  a  population  of  nearly 


LIFE   IN   THE   LEADING   CITIES.  371 

thirty  thousand;  Richmond,  in  Virginia, 
with  more  than  fifty  thousand  inhabitants 
and  famous  for  its  beautiful  location,  its 
flour  and  tobacco  trade,  and  for  having  been 
the  headquarters  of  the  late  rebellion ;  Mo- 
bile, in  Alabama,  with  thirty-two  thousand 
inhabitants,  possessing  characteristics  simi- 
lar to  those  of  New  Orleans ;  Detroit,  in 
Michigan,  with  nearly  eighty  thousand  in- 
habitants, beautiful  for  situation,  and  the 
commercial  gateway  to  the  Great  Lakes  of 
Huron,  Michigan  and  Superior  ;  Milwaukie, 
in  Wisconsin,  with  seventy-one  thousand  in- 
habitants, the  counterpart  of  Chicago  and 
its  unsuccessful  rival;  Cleveland  in  Ohio, 
with  ninety-three  thousand  energetic  inhabi- 
tants ;  Buffalo,  at  the  Eastern  end  of  Lake 
Erie,  with  a  population  of  one  hundred  and 
fifteen  thousand  souls,  near  which  are  the 
Falls  of  Niagara;  Pittsburg  in  Pennsylvania, 
with  a  population  of  eighty-six  thousand, 
almost  entirely  devoted  to  the  coal  and  iron 
interests ;  Albany  in  New  York,  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Hudson  and  famous  for 


372  LIFE  IN  THE  LEADING  CITIES. 

its  Dutch  history  and  as  being  the  Capitol 
of  the  Empire  State,  with  seventy  thousand 
people ;  Rochester  and  Troy,  in  the  same 
State,  with  sixty-three  thousand  souls; 
Indianapolis,  in  Indiana,  with  forty-eight 
thousand  people  and  famous  for  its  sur- 
rounding agricultural  country ;  Portland, 
in  Maine,  which  has  thirty-two  thousand 
souls  and  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  Amer- 
ica; and  the  cities  of  Cambridge,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  New  Haven,  in  Connecticut, 
where  are  located  two  of  the  leading  Col- 
leges of  the  United  States. 


PART    TWELFTH 


FRONTIER  LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 


THE  frontiers  of  America  are  so  exten- 
sive and  the  pursuits  of  their  inhabitants 
so  various  that  an  entire  volume  would  not 
suffice  to  describe  them  with  minuteness. 
In  taking  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  domain 
in  question,  (and  a  similar  view  of  other 
subjects  is  all  that  has  been  attempted  in 
the  foregoing  chapters.)  we  propose  to  speak 
of  the  four  following  characteristics,  viz : 
the  Indians,  the  Pioneer  Farmers,  the  Fur 
Traders  and  Trappers,  and  the  Lumber- 
men. 

It  is  now  a  settled  fact  that  the  Red  race 
or  Native  Indians  of  America,  are  gradually 
passing  away  under  the  march  of  civiliza- 
tion. According  to  the  most  authentic 


376       FRONTIER   LIFE   AND   DEVELOPMENTS. 

data,  the  number  of  Indians  who  recognize 
the  President  as  their  Great  Father,  is 
about  three  hundred  thousand.  Of  these, 
the  Creeks,  Cherokees,  Choctaws  and  Chick- 
asaws,  who  live  on  the  head  waters  of  the 
Arkansas,  number  some  fifty-four  thousand; 
and  excepting  4000  of  the  Six  Nations  in 
New  York,  1000  Cherokees  in  North  Caro- 
lina, 600  Penobscots  in  Maine,  and  41,000 
of  various  tribes  still  holding  reservations 
on  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi 
and  Missouri  rivers,  they  are  the  only  tribes 
that  have  made  any  satisfactory  advances 
in  acquiring  the  arts  and  comforts  of  civili- 
zation. It  would  thus  appear  that  the 
number  of  wild  Indians  who  live  entirely 
by  the  chase,  and  inhabit  the  American  ter- 
ritories, excluding  Alaska,  number  two  hun- 
dred thousand  souls.  Although  nominally 
obedient  to  the  laws  of  the  United  States, 
these  hunting  tribes  are  in  reality  as  free 
to  roam,  as  if  there  were  no  central  govern- 
ment. But  with  those  who  are  partially 
civilized  the  case  is  quite  different.  Their 


FRONTIER   LIFE   AND    DEVELOPMENTS.       377 

wealth  has  been  estimated  at  $3,300,000, 
while  they  support  about  seventy  schools, 
nearly  the  same  number  of  teachers  or  mis- 
sionaries, and  cultivate  nearly  one  thousand 
acres  of  land.  The  names  by  which  they 
are  known  number  one  hundred  and  fifty, 
and  their  geographical  condition  is  co-exten- 
sive with  the  area  of  the  United  States  and 
Territories ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact 
that  of  all  the  races  or  classes  of  people 
who  inhabit  the  United  States,  the  Indians 
are  the  only  people  who  are  not  recognized 
as  citizens  by  the  General  Government. 

On  leaving  the  hunting  grounds  of  the 
Red-Men  for  the  haunts  of  opening  civiliza- 
tion the  first  thing  which  attracts  attention 
is  the  cabin  of  the  pioneer  or  frontier  far- 
mer. Though  born  and  bred  in  a  settled 
country,  this  man,  who  represents  a  large 
class,  has  been  tempted  by  the  spirit  of 
enterprise  to  purchase  a  few  hundred  acres 
of  land  at  the  low  Government  price,  which 
he  is  clearing  away  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
and  in  the  midst  of  which  he  has  fixed  his 


378       FRONTIER   LIFE   AND   DEVELOPMENTS. 

home.  It  is  built  of  logs,  small  and  poorly 
furnished,  and  but  for  the  smoke  issuing 
from  its  rustic  chimney,  could  hardly  be 
distinguished  from  the  stable  or  barn,  where 
he  shelters  his  horses  and  oxen  and  cows. 
Hard  work  and  rough  fare  are  the  lot  of 
this  poor  yoeman,  but  his  mission,  as  a  man, 
commands  the  highest  respect.  He  has  a 
growing  family  about  him,  and  in  their  wel- 
fare are  centred  all  his  hopes.  Though  far 
removed  from  schools  and  churches  and  the 
refinements  of  life,  he  plods  on  year  after 
year,  giving  his  boys  the  best  education  he 
can,  thankful  that  they  are  approaching 
man's  estate,  and  cheered  with  the  prospect 
that,  like  many  of  his  predecessors  in  a 
new  country,  he  will  acquire  a  fortune  and 
spend  his  old  age  in  a  large  frame  or  brick 
house,  and  end  his  days  in  peace.  Five,  ten, 
or  it  may  be  fifteen  miles  from  this  man's 
cabin  is  another,  built  on  the  same  model, 
and  whose  owner  is  a  counterpart  of  him- 
self. Farther  on,  still  another  log  cabin 
comes  in  view,  and  so  on  do  they  continue 


FRONTIER   LIFE   AND   DEVELOPMENTS.       379 

to  appear,  encompassing  the  entire  frontiers 
of  civilization.  The  ancestors  of  many  of 
these  men.  were  among  those  who  originally 
fought  on  the  battle-field  for  the  indepen- 
dence of  their  country,  and  they  themselves, 
with  their  brothers  and  sons,  flocked  by 
thousands  to  its  rescue,  during  the  late 
Civil  War  in  America.  These  men  embody 
'  the  true  spirit  of  the  land  in  which  they 
dwell,  and  in  history  they  will  be  long  re- 
membered with  honor  and  gratitude,  for 
what  they  have  done,  and  are  doing,  to 
make  clear  the  pathway  of  empire. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  that  class  of 
people,  living  on  the  frontiers,  known  as 
Fur  Traders  and  Trappers.  The  business 
of  collecting  and  selling  furs  and  peltries, 
was  commenced  immediately  after  the  first 
settlement  of  the  country,  and  for  about 
two  hundred  years,  was  eminently  lucrative 
and  gave  employment  to  large  numbers  of 
enterprising  men.  Representatives  from 
France  and  England  as  well  as  the  United 
States  participated  in  the  trade,  and  sev- 


380      FRONTIER   LIFE  AND  DEVELOPMENTS. 

eral  companies  of  great  magnitude  and  influ- 
ence were  the  outgrowth  of  this  trade,  viz : 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  the  North- 
west Company  and  the  American  Fur  Com- 
pany. Of  late  years,  however,  the  fur  busi- 
ness has  greatly  declined  on  the  American 
Continent,  but  is  not  yet  extinct.  The 
men  called  traders  are  those  who  locate 
themselves  on  the  borders  of  the  wilderness, 
and  keep  for  sale  ample  supplies  of  all  such 
articles  as  may  be  needed  by  the  Indians 
or  trappers,  who  pay  for  what  they  pur- 
chase with  furs  and  peltries.  The  more 
common  articles  required  are  blankets,  guns 
and  ammunition,  flour  and  pork,  tobacco, 
knives,  as  well  as  trinkets  and  the  baneful 
firewater,  while  the  articles  for  which  they 
are  exchanged,  are  buffalo  robes  and  the 
skins  of  the  deer,  the  beaver  and  otter,  the 
sable,  the  mink,  the  bear  and  the  wolf,  for 
all  of  which  there  is  always  a  demand  in 
the  cities  of  the  Atlantic  States.  The  men 
known  as  trappers,  are  either  white  men  or 
half  breeds,  (so-called,  because  they  are  the 


FRONTIER   LIFE   AND  ^DEVELOPMENTS.       381 

offspring  of  French  fathers  and  Indian  moth- 
ers,) and  they  are  the  successful  rivals  of 
the  native  Indians  in  hunting  or  trapping 
wild  animals.  Those  who  reside  in  the 
prairie  countries  or  among  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  chiefly  employ  the  horse  in 
travelling,  while  those  who  reside  in  the 
densely  wooded  regions,  where  rivers  and 
lakes  abound,  employ  the  bark  canoe  in 
their  operations.  In  the  earlier  times, 
when  America  was  yet  a  wilderness,  this 
latter  class  of  men  rendered  important  ser- 
vice to  the  English  and  French  nations,  by 
acting  as  guides  and  assistants  in  the  ex- 
ploring expeditions,  and  they  became  uni- 
versally known  as  voyageurs.  While  there 
are  many  American  towns  and  cities  which 
owe  their  origin  to  the  existence  of  the  fur 
trade,  the  two  most  noted  of  these  are  St. 
Louis  on  the  Mississippi  river,  and  Mon- 
treal in  Canada,  which  lies  on  the  river  St. 
Lawrence,  but  both  of  these  noted  cities 
are  rapidly  losing  their  former  reputations, 
and  have  really  become  cosmopolitan  in 


382       FRONTIER   LIFE   AND   DEVELOPMENTS. 

their  character,  as  well  as  cities  of  great 
magnitude  and  importance  in  the  history  of 
commerce. 

But,  by  far  the  most  important  phase  of 
frontier  life  in  the  United  States,  is  that 
connected  with  the  lumbering  business. 
There  is  no  country  on  the  globe  which 
equals  America  in  the  extent  of  its  valua- 
ble forests,  and  there  is  a  great  and  con- 
stantly increasing  demand,  for  every  vari- 
ety of  lumber,  for  the  building  of  houses 
and  the  countless  other  things  which  are 
made  of  wood  and  indispensable  for  the 
comfort  of  mankind.  The  manufacture  of 
lumber  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  is 
a  prominent  source  of  wealth  in  America, 
the  aggregate  value  of  the  trade  amounting 
to  more  than  one  hundred  millions  of  dollars, 
and  giving  employment  to  nearly  one  hun- 
dred thousand  persons  in  its  various  depart- 
ments. The  variety  of  forest  trees  which 
are  cut  down  and  transformed  into  lumber 
is  very  great,  but  the  pine  is  most  abun- 
dant, next  to  which  may  be  mentioned  the 


FRONTIER  LIFE   AND^  DEVELOPMENTS.       383 

fir,  spruce  and  hemlock,  all  of  which  are 
found  in  the  Eastern,  Northern  and  North- 
western States.  The  various  marketable 
articles,  which  are  manufactured  out  of 
these  several  woods  are  known  as  timber, 
staves,  shingles,  boards  of  every  thickness, 
scantling,  masts  and  knees  for  shipping; 
and  the  uses  to  which  these  productions 
are  applied,  are  endless  and  of  vast  impor- 
tance to  the  people  in  every  sphere  of  life. 
In  North  Carolina,  they  have  a  peculiar 
kind  of  pine,  which  they  not  only  manu- 
facture into  lumber,  but  from  which  the  in- 
habitants obtain  large  quantities  of  tar, 
pitch  and  turpentine.  In  Alabama  and 
Mississippi,  they  have  still  another  variety 
of  pine,  which  is  worked  into  spars  and 
masts  by  the  ship-builders  of  the  country. 
In  Florida,  an  extensive  business  is  done  in 
preparing  the  live  oak  of  that  region  for 
use  in  building  the  Naval  vessels  of  the 
country, — the  Government  retaining  the 
monopoly  of  that  valuable  product.  In 
many  of  the  Western  States,  there  is  a  tree 
called  the  black- walnut,  which  is  employed 


384       FRONTIER   LIFE   AND   DEVELOPMENTS. 

to  a  great  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  ele- 
gant furniture,  and  has  competed  success- 
fully with  the  imported  wood  called  ma- 
hogany. 

With  regard  to  the  various  classes  of 
people  engaged  in  the  lumbering  business, 
throughout  the  Union,  the  most  numerous 
are  called  lumbermen.  In  all  those  regions 
where  the  white  pine  and  spruce  and  fir 
prevail,  they  form  extensive  parties  and 
spend  the  winter  in  the  dense  forests,  cut- 
ting down  trees  and  dragging  the  logs  to 
the  banks  of  the  streams;  and  when  spring 
comes,  and  the  streams  become  full  of  water, 
they  drive  the  logs  down  the  rivers,  and  in 
immense  quantities,  all  arranged  in  rafts, 
deliver  them  at  the  saw  mills  at  the  mouths 
of  the  streams  and  on  navigable  waters, 
where  the  logs  are  turned  into  all  kinds  of 
lumber,  and  thence  shipped  by  vessels  to 
various  parts  of  the  United  States  as  well 
as  to  foreign  countries.  Many  of  the  mer- 
chants or  companies  who  employ  these  lum- 
bermen do  business  on  a  scale  of  great  mag- 
nitude, and  they  not  only  control  the  vari- 


FRONTIER   LIFE  AND   DEVELOPMENTS.       385 

ous  operations  in  the  interior,  but  are  also 
the  owners  of  the  mills  where  the  lumber 
is  made,  as  well  as  many  of  the  vessels  em- 
ployed in  the  carrying  trade.  The  mills  to 
which  we  have  alluded,  are  generally  so 
located  as  to  be  driven  by  water-power,  and 
as  they  are  very  numerous  and  extensive, 
they  give  employment  to  workmen  of  many 
grades,  who  form  a  class  quite  distinct  from 
that  of  lumbermen.  They  are  for  the  most 
part  an  intelligent  and  hardy  race  of  men, 
and  fail  not,  when  elections  take  place,  to 
exert  an  important  influence  on  the  affairs 
of  their  own  State  or  those  of  the  General 
Government. 

As  we  pass  into  the  pine  forests  of  Caro- 
lina, we  there  find  quite  another  state  of 
affairs.  In  that  region,  the  manufacture 
of  lumber  is  carried  on,  as  already  stated, 
in  conjunction  with  the  production  of  tar, 
pitch  and  turpentine,  and  by  far  the  largest 
proportion  of  the  men  employed,  were  for- 
merly the  colored  people  called  slaves,  but 
now  known  as  freedmen.  There,  as  well 
as  elsewhere,  the  prevailing  business  is 


386       FRONTIER   LIFE   AND   DEVELOPMENTS. 

conducted  by  organized  companies  or  by 
men  of  ample  means,  who  give  employment, 
and  a  good  support,  to  large  numbers  of 
hardworking  men.  As  to  those  who  live 
in  the  States  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, especially  in  Florida,  and  who  prepare 
the  live  oak  timber  for  use  at  the  Navy 
Yards, — they  are  mostly  men  from  the 
north,  with  northern  habits  and  constitu- 
tions, and  are  exclusively  employed  by  the 
General  Government.  They  also  pursue 
their  arduous  labors  in  the  winter  months, 
and,  like  the  lumbermen  of  New  England, 
live  in  tents  or  cabins  and  on  the  plainest 
fare.  As  to  the  business  of  spar-cutting  in 
Alabama  and  Mississippi,  it  requires  so 
little  sagacity,  that  it  is  chiefly  carried  on 
by  those  who  own  the  forest  lands;  but 
when  we  pass  on  to  the  Northwestern  States, 
where  the  black-walnut  prevails,  we  there 
find  the  business  of  lumbering  fully  organ- 
ized, and  the  durable  and  rich  looking  wood 
carefully  prepared  for  transportation  by 
steamboats  or  railroads  to  the  markets  on 
the  Atlantic  coast. 


PART   THIRTEENTH. 


JUDICIAL  LIFE. 


THE  Constitution  provides  that  "  the  ju- 
dicial power  of  the]  United  States  shall  be 
vested  in  one  Supreme^Court,  and  in  such 
inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from 
time  to  time  ordain  and  establish."  The 
Constitution  further  defines  and  limits  the 
judicial  power  as  follows — "1.  The  judicial 
power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and 
equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the 
laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties 
made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their 
authority;  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassa- 
dors, other  public  ministers  and  consuls; 
to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  juris- 
diction ;  to  controversies  to  which  the  Uni- 
ted States  shall  be  a  party ;  to  controver- 


390  JUDICIAL    LIFE. 

sies  between  two  or  more  States,  between 
a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State,  be- 
tween citizens  of  different  States,  between 
citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  lands 
under  grants  of  different  States,  and  be- 
tween a  State  or  the  citizens  thereof  and 
foreign  states,  citizens  or  subjects."  "  2. 
In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other 
public  ministers  and  consuls,  and  those  in 
which  a  State  shall  be  a  party,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In 
all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the 
Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  juris- 
diction both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such 
exceptions,  and  under  such  regulations,  as 
the  Congress  shall  make." 

The  Supreme  Court  being  established  by 
the  Constitution,  Congress  has  from  time 
to  time  established  the  following  additional 
"  inferior  courts  "  of  the  United  States,  viz  : 
the  Circuit  Courts,  the  District  Courts,  the 
Court  of  Claims,  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
District  of  Columbia,  the  Territorial  Courts, 
with  the  Supreme  Court,  constitute  the 


JUDICIAL    LIFE.  391 

Judiciary  of  the  United  States.  The  out- 
lines of  their  powers,  jurisdiction,  &c.,  will 
be  briefly  presented  as  follows : 

I.  The  Supreme  Court.  The  original  ju- 
risdiction of  the  Supreme  Court  is  defined 
in  the  Constitution,  as  quoted.  Its  appel- 
late jurisdiction  is  also  there  defined,  but  is 
provided  to  be  subject  to  exceptions  and 
regulation  by  Congress.  This  power  Con- 
gress has  exercised  in  the  following  instan- 
ces. Appeals  from  these  Circuit  Courts  to 
the  Supreme  Court,  in  civil  actions,  equity 
cases,  and  admiralty  and  prize  cases,  are 
restricted  to  those  in  which  the  matter  in 
dispute  exceeds  the  sum  or  value  of  two 
thousand  dollars  exclusive  of  costs.  But 
this  restriction  does  not  apply  to  patent 
copyright,  or  revenue  cases  ;  nor  does  it 
affect  a-ppeals  in  criminal  cases.  Congress 
has  also  provided  that  the  Supreme  Court 
shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction  from  judg- 
ments or  decrees  of  the  highest  courts  of 
the  several  States  in  suits  where  is  drawn 
in  question  the  validity  of  a  treaty,  or  stat- 


392  JUDICIAL   LIFE. 

ute  of,  or  an  authority  exercised  under,  the 
United  States,  and  the  decision  has  been 
against  their  validity ;  or  where  is  drawn 
in  question  the  validity  of  a  statute  of,  or 
an  authority  exercised  under,  any  State, 
on  the  ground  of  their  being  repugnant  to 
the  constitution,  treaties,  or  laws  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  decision  is  in  favor 
of  such  validity ;  or  where  any  title,  right, 
privilege,  or  immunity  is  claimed  under  the 
constitution,  treaties  or  laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  decision  is  against  the  title, 
right,  &c.  But  from  the  operations  of  these 
provisions  are  excepted  cases  of  persons 
held  in  the  custody  of  the  military  authori- 
ties of  the  United  States,  charged  with  mili- 
tary offences,  or  with  having  aided  or  abet- 
ted rebellion  against  the  Government. 

The  Supreme  Court  sits  at  Washington, 
and  holds  one  annual  session,  commencing 
on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  with 
such  adjourned  or  special  terms  as  may  be 
found  necessary  for  the  despatch  of  busi- 
ness. It  consists  of  a  chief  justice  and 


JUDICIAL   LIFE.  393 

eight  justices,  who,  in  common  with  all  the 
United   States   Judges,  hold   their   offices 
during  good  behavior.     The  salary  of  the 
Chief  Justice  is  $8,500 ;  that  of  each  of 
the  justices  eight  thousand  dollars,  per  an- 
num.    Six  of  the  nine  constitute  a  quorum. 
II.  The  Circuit  Courts  are  nine  in  num- 
ber ;  the  United   States  being  divided  into 
nine  circuits,  each  comprising  three  or  more 
districts.     Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court 
are  allotted  by  that  Court,  to  the  several 
circuits,    to  assist  in  holding  the  Circuit 
Courts.     Each  circuit  has  besides  a  circuit 
judge  with  a  salary  of  six  thousand  dollars ; 
with  the  same  power  and  jurisdiction  as  the 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  allotted  to  the 
circuit.     The   Circuit  Court  in  each  circuit 
is  held  by  the  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
or  by  the  circuit  judge  of  the  circuit,  or  by 
the  district  judge  of  the  district — sitting 
alone;  or  by  the  justice   of  the  Supreme 
Court  and  circuit  judge  sitting  together  ;  or 
(in  the  absence  of  either  of  them,)  by  the 
other  and  the  district  judge.     Where  two 


394  JUDICIAL   LIFE. 

judges  hold  a  circuit  court,  and  differ  in 
opinion,  the  law  provides  for  a  special  ap- 
peal to  the  Supreme  Court.     There  are  two 
annual  sessions  of  each  circuit  court,  with 
special  sessions   for   the   trial   of  criminal 
cases.       The  jurisdiction    of    the    Circuit 
Courts  is  as  follows  :  They  have  concurrent 
jurisdiction,  with  the  State  courts,  of  civil 
suits  at  common  law  and  equity  where  the 
matter  in   dispute    exceeds,    exclusive    of 
costs,  the  sum  or  value  of  five  hundred  dol- 
lars, and  where  the  United  States  are  plain- 
tiffs or  petitioners,   or  an  alien  is  a  party, 
(but  not  where  both  parties  are  aliens ;)   or 
where  the  suit  is  between  a  citizen  of  the 
State  in  which  the   suit  is   brought,  and  a 
citizen  of  another  State.     They  have  exclu- 
sive jurisdiction  of  all  crimes  and  offences 
cognizable  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  except  of  such   as  are  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  District  Courts,  and  of 
those    they    have    concurrent  jurisdiction. 
They  have  also  original  jurisdiction  in  all 
patent  and  copy-right  cases,  and  their  juris- 


JUDICIAL    LIFE.  395 

diction  also  extends  to  all  cases  arising  un- 
der the  revenue  laws.  They  are  also  in- 
vested with  jurisdiction  of  certain  classes  of 
cases  removed  to  them,  under  special  stat- 
utes, from  the  State  Courts ;  including  suits 
between  citizens  of  different  States,  suits 
against  aliens,  and  suits  and  prosecutions 
against  military  and  other  officers  of  the 
Government.  The  Circuit  Courts  entertain 
appeals  from  the  District  Courts  in  criminal 
cases,  and  in  civil  cases  where  the  matter 
in  dispute  exceeds  the  sum  of  fifty  dollars. 
III.  The  United  States  is  further  divided 
into  districts,  for  the  holding  of  U.  S.  Dis- 
trict Courts  therein.  A  district  usually  in- 
cludes a  single  State;  but  the  larger  States 
are  divided  into  two  or  sometimes  three 
districts.  For  each  district,  there  is  a  Dis- 
trict Judge,  who  holds  four  regular  sessions 
of  the  district  court  annually.  The  sala- 
ries of  the  District  Judges  are  different  in 
different  parts  of  the  country.  The  Dis- 
trict Courts  have  original,  and  exclusive 
jurisdiction  of  admiralty  and  maritime  cases, 


396  JUDICIAL   LIFE. 

of  cases  of  seizures  on  land  and  water  un- 
der the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  of 
suits  brought  for  penalties  and  forfeitures 
incurred  under  said  laws.  They  have  also 
jurisdiction,  exclusive  of  the  State  Courts, 
of  suits  against  consuls,  vice  consuls,  &c. 
They  have  also  concurrent  jurisdiction  with 
the  Circuit  Courts  in  cases  of  crimes  and 
offences,  not  capital,  committed  under  the 
laws  of  the  United  States.  Also  concur- 
rent jurisdiction  with  such  courts  and  the 
State  Courts  of  suits  at  common  law  in 
which  the  United  States,  or  any  officer 
thereof  may  sue,  under  the  authority  of 
any  law  of  the  United  States.  Also  a  simi- 
lar jurisdiction  of  all  suits  by  aliens,  on  ac- 
count of  torts  in  violation  of  the  laws  of  na- 
tions or  a  treaty  of  the  United  States. 

IV.  The  Court  of  Claims  sits  in  the  Cap- 
itol at  Washington^  and  commences  its  regu- 
lar annual  session  on  the  same  day  as  the 
Supreme  Court,  viz  :  the  first  Monday  in 
December.  It  consists  of  a  chief  justice 
and  four  justices,  with  salary  of  four  thou- 


JUDICIAL  TIFE.  397 

sand  dollars  each.  It  has  jurisdiction  of 
"  all  claims  founded  upon  any  law  of  Con- 
gress, or  upon  any  regulation  of  an  execu- 
tive department,  or  upon  any  contract,  ex- 
press or  implied,  with  the  Government  of 
the  United  States,  which  may  be  suggested 
to  it  by  a  petition  filed  therein,  and  also  all 
claims  which  may  be  referred  to  said  court 
by  either  House  of  Congress; " — also  juris- 
diction of  all  counter  claims  and  demands 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  against 
any  persons  making  claim  against  the  Gov- 
ernment in  said  court;  also  jurisdiction  of 
claims  to  property  captured  or  abandoned 
during  the  rebellion ;  also  jurisdiction  of 
the  claims  of  disbursing  officers  of  the 
United  States  for  relief  from  responsibility 
on  account  of  losses  of  public  property  by 
capture  or  otherwise  while  in  the  line  of 
duty  ;  and  of  some  other  claims  of  less  gen- 
eral importance.  The  court  is  precluded 
from  passing  upon  claims  for  supplies  taken, 
injuries  done,  &c.,  by  United  States  troops 
during  the  rebellion,  and  from  rendering 


398  JUDICIAL   LIFE. 

judgment  in  favor  of  any  claimant,  who  has 
not  been  loyal  to  the  United  States,  Ap- 
peals may  be  taken  by  the  United  States 
to  the  Supreme  Court  in  all  cases  where 
the  judgment  is  adverse  to  the  United 
States ;  and  by  the  claimant  where  the 
amount  in  controversy  exceeds  three  thou- 
sand dollars.  This  Court  is  the  only  court 
of  the  U.  S.,  in  which  the  United  States 
cau  be  directly  sued  as  a  defendant. 

V.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the  District  of 
Columbia  consists  of  a  chief  justice  and 
three  other  justices,  and  holds  its  sessions  at 
the  City  Hall  in  Washington.  The  salary  of 
the  chief  justice  is  four  thousand  five  hun- 
dred dollars,  and  of  each  of  the  other  jus- 
tices four  thousand  dollars.  This  court 
combines  the  general  powers  and  jurisdic- 
tion of  a  circuit  court  and  a  district  court. 
Any  siogle  one  of  its  judges  is  authorized 
to  hold  a  district  court.  Its  jurisdiction 
extends  only  to  civil  proceedings  instituted, 
and  crimes  committed  in  the  District  of 
Columbia ;  and  to  cases  of  seizures  on  land 
and  water  made,  and  penalties  and  forfei- 


JUDICIAL   LIFE. 

tures  incurred,  under  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  within  the  same  limits  only.  It  en- 
tertains appeals  from  the  local  justices  of 
the  peace  and  police  court;  and  its  final 
judgments,  orders  and  decrees  are  subject 
to  be  appealed  from  to  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States. 

VI.  Territorial  Courts.  When  a  terri- 
torial government  is  organized  by  Congress 
x  for  any  Territory,  a  judiciary  is  provided, 
consisting  generally  of  a  Supreme  Court  of 
three  or  more  judges,  district  courts'  to  be 
held  by  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  sep- 
arately, probate  courts,  and  justices'  courts. 
The  district  courts  are  invested  with  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  circuit  and  district  courts 
of  the  United  States;  and  an  appeal  is 
given  from  the  district  courts  to  the  Su- 
preme Court.  An  appeal  is  also  provided 
from  the  Supreme  Court  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  in  the  same 
manner  as  from  a  circuit  court.  When  a 
Territory  is  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a 
State,  these  courts  cease  to  exist,  being 
supplanted  by  the  State  Courts. 


ADDITIONAL  NOTES, 


-AFTER  the  foregoing  chapters  on  Reg- 
ious  and  Educational  Life  had  been  printed, 
we  obtained  some  later  official  information 
on  those  subjects,  which  we  append  in  this 
place.  In  1870,  three  States  of  the  Union 
passed  laws  compelling  the  education  of  all 
children  with  sound  minds  and  bodies. 
The  total  number  of  Colleges  in  the  coun- 
try is  368,  of  which  261  are  supported  by 
the  different  religious  denominations.  In 
these  institutions  there  are  2,962  instruc- 
tors and  49,827  pupils ;  in  99  of  them 
males  and  females  are  instructed,  while  the 
balance  are  confined  to  males ;  and  besides 
these  there  are  136  institutions  for  the 
superior  instruction  of  females  alone,  in 
which  there  are  1,163  teachers  and  12,841 


402  ADDITIONAL    NOTES. 

pupils.  Of  Medical  Schools,  there  are  57 ; 
Theological  Schools,  117 ;  Law  Schools, 
40 ;  Normal  Schools,  51,  and  Business 
Schools,  84.  Connected  with  these  various 
institutions,  there  are  180  Libraries  with 
2,355,237  volumes.  The  benefactions  to 
educational  objects  by  private  citizens  were 
quite  unparalleled  in  1870,  amounting  in 
the  aggregate  to  $8,435,990.  With  regard 
to  the  effect  of  education  upon  crime,  we 
find  that  there  was  one  homicide  to  every 
56,000  people,  one  to  every  4000  thousand 
in  the  Pacific  States,  and  one  to  every  10,- 
000  in  the  Southern  States.  At  least  80 
per  cent,  of  the  crime  of  New  England  is 
committed  by  those  who  have  no  education ; 
in  all  parts  of  the  country,  90  per  cent,  of 
the  criminals  were  illiterate ;  75  per  cent, 
were  foreigners ;  and  from  80  to  90  per 
cent,  connected  their  career  of  crime  with 
intemperance.  From  these  figures  the  con- 
clusion is  inevitable,  that  ignorance  breeds 
crime  and  education  is  the  remedy  for  the 
crime  that  prevails. 


ADDITIONAL   NOTES.  403 

In  further  illustration  of  the  preceding 
article  on  agriculture,  we  append  the  follow- 
ing statement.  The  total  value  of  farm 
products  in  the  United  States  and  Terri- 
tories, during  the  year  ending  June  31, 
1870,  according  to  the  Census,  was 
$2,445,000,000.  The  largest  product  was 
in  the  State  of  New  York  and  the  second 
largest  in  Illinois. 

Now  that  this  little  book  is  finished,  the 
mind  of  the  Compiler  naturally  turns  to 
take  a  single  comprehensive  view  of  the 
great  country  which  has  been  briefly  de- 
scribed. It  is  indeed  one  of  the  wonders 
of  the  century  and  of  the  world.  The  ex- 
tent of  its  domain  and  its  unbounded  re- 
sources,— the  peaceful  blending  of  its  many 
nationalities, — the  well-nigh  unlimited  dif- 
fusion of  intelligence  and  knowledge,  and 
the  free,  cosmopolitan  character  of  its  peo- 
ple, combine  to  give  it  a  conspicuous  posi- 
tion among  the  nations.  At  the  very 
moment  when  these  closing  lines  are  being 
written,  a  Diplomatic  Embassy  from  the 


404  ADDITIONAL    NOTES. 

Tenno  of^Japan,  is  on  the  point  of  visiting 
the  City  of  Washington,  and  the  fact  can- 
not but  have  made  an  impression  on  their 
minds,  that,  after  landing  on  the  soil  of 
America,  they  have  been  compelled  to 
travel  more  than  three  thousand  miles  be- 
fore reaching  the  metropolis.  But  when  the 
Ambassadors,  and  the  other  high  officials 
who  accompany  them,  are  informed  as  to 
the  warm  welcome  which  is  in  store  for 
them  from  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  and  many  of  the  leading  men  and 
corporations  throughout  the  Union,  and 
when  they  shall  have  experienced  the  un- 
bounded hospitality  of  the  American  peo- 
ple generally,  they  will  undoubtedly  be 
deeply  impressed,  and  effectually  convinced, 
that  America  and  Japan  are  strongly  bound 
together  by  the  cords  of  sincere  regard 
and  unselfish  affection. 


ERRATA,   &c. 


Page  15,  line  11. — For  ruler  read  governor. 
*•    16,  lines  1  and  2.— These  expenses  are  incurred  in  part  by  the 

Government  and  the  People. 
Page  28,  line  3. — For  directly  read  indirectly. 
"    51.  line  7. — Add  after  foreigner — as  well  as  a  native. 
"    62,  line  10. — For  equal  to  read  greater  than. 
"    64,  line  5. — After  offspring  add— except  that  the  wife  has  a  life 

interest  of  one-third  called  the  widow's  dower. 

Page  73,  line  14. — After  farms  add — There  is  an  extensive  emigration 
from  China  to  this  country  now  going  on,  nud  what 
effect  it  will  have  on  the  agricultural  and  industrial 
interests  is  a  problem  which  can  only  be  settled  by 
the  future. 

Page  95, 1'ne  1. — For  all  in  read  in  all. 
"    97,  line  19. — For  and  Furniture  read  Woollen-goods — Tea,  Coffee, 

and  Sugars. 

Page  106,  line  14.— Since  this  was  printed  it  has  been  stated  that  W.  B. 
Astor,  A.  T.  Stewart,  and  Cornelius  Yunderbilt,  are 
each  worth  about  sixty  millions  of  dollars. 
Page  118,  line  8.— The  last  figure  1  should  be  2. 
«*    120,  line  20.— For  directly  read  indirectly. 
u    120.— Strike  out  last  two  lines  after  and,  and  add  $356,000.000  being 

a  legal  tender. 

Page  121. — It  should  bo  stated  in  this  paragraph  that  there  are  Branch 
Mints  in  operation  in  San  Francisco,  Denver.  Char- 
lotte, Carson  City,  and  an  Assay  Office  in  New 
York;  and  also  that  nickel  is  used  in  some  of  the 
smaller  coins. 


M277094 


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